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HANDICRAFT   SERIES. 

A  Series  of  Practical  Manuals. 

Edited    by    PAUL    N.    HASLUCK,    Editor    of    "Work." 
Price  60cts.  each,   post  paid. 

House     Decoration.       Comprising    Whitewashing,     Paperhanging, 

Painting,  etc.     With  79  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Colour  and  Paints.  Pigments,  Oils,  Driers,  Varnishes,  etc.  Tools 
used  by  Painters.  How  to  Mix  Oil  Paints.  Distemper  or  Tempera  Paintiug. 
Whitewashing  and  Decorating  a  Ceiling.  Painting  a  Room.  Papering  a  Room. 
Embellishment  of  Walls  and  Ceilings. 

Boot  Making'  and  Mending.     Including  Repairing,   Lasting,  and 
Finishing.     With  179  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Repairing  Heels  and  Half-Soling.  Patching  Boots  and  Shoes. 
Re-Welting  and  Re-Soling.  Boot  lyjaking.  La'^ting  the  Upper.  Sewmg  and 
Stitching.  Making  the  Heel.  Knifing  and  Finishing.  Making  Riveted  B^ots 
and  Shoes. 

How  to  Write  Signs,  Tickets,  and  Posters.    With  170  Engravings 
and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — The  Formation  of  Letters,  Stops,  and  Numerals.  The  Sign- 
writer's  Outfit.  Making  Signboards  and  Laying  Ground  Colours.  The  Simpler 
Forms  of  Lettering.  ^Shaded  and  Fancy  Lettering.  Painting  a  Signboard. 
Ticket- Writing.  Poster-  Painting.  Lettering  with  Gold,  etc. 
Wood  Finishing.  Comprising  Staining,  Varnishing,  and  Polishing. 
With  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Processes  of  Finishing  Wood.  Processes  of  Staining  Wood. 
French  Polishing.  Fillers  for  Wood  and  Filling  In.  Bodying  In  and  Spiriting 
Off.  Glazing  and  Wax  Finishing.  Oil  Polishing  and  Dry  Shining.  Re-polishing 
and  Reviving.  Hard  Stopping  or  Beaumontage.  Treatment  of  Floors  Stains. 
Processes  of  Varn'shing  Wood  Varnishes.  Re-polishing  Shop  Fronts. 
Dynamos  and  Electric  Motors.    With  142  Engravings  and  Diagrams 

Conterits. — Introduction.  Siemens  Dynamo.  Gramme  Dynamo.  Manchester 
Dynamo.  Simplex  Dynamo,  Calculating  the  Size  and  Amount  of  Wire  for 
Small  Dynamos.  Ailments  of  Small  Dynamo  Electric  Machines  :  their  Causes 
and  Cures.  Small  Electro-motors  without  Castings.  How  to  Determine  the 
Direction  of  Rotation  of  a  Motor.  How  to  Make  a  Shuttle-Armature  Motor. 
Undertype  50- Watt  Dynamo.  Manchester  Type  440- Watt  Dynamo. 
Cycle  Building  and  Repairing.    With  142  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Introductory^,  and  Tools  Used.  How  to  Build  a  Front  Driver. 
Building  a  Rear-driving  Safety.  Building  Tandem  Safeties.  Building  Front- 
driver  Tricycle.  Building  a  Hand  Tricycle.  Brazing.  How  to  Make  and  Fit 
Gear  Cases.  Fittings  and  Accessories.  ^Vheel  Making.  Tyres  and  Methods 
of  Fixing  them.  Enamelling.     Repairing. 

Decorative  Designs  cf  All  Ages  for  All  Purposes.    With  277 

Engravmgs  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Savage  Ornament.  Egyptian  Ornament.  Assyrian  Ornament 
Greek  Ornament.  Roman  Ornament.  Early  Christian  Ornament.  Arabic 
Ornament.  Celtic  and  Scandinavian  Ornaments.  Mediaeval  Ornament. 
Renascence  and  Modern  Ornaments.  Chinese  Ornament.  Persian  Ornament. 
Indian  Ornament.  Japanese  Ornament. 
Mounting  and  Framing  Pictures.    With  240  Engravings,  etc. 

Contents.— M.ak\r\g,  Picture  Frames.     Notes  on  Art  Frames.     Picture  Frame_ 
Cramps.      Making   Oxford    Frames.      Gilding    Picture    Frames.     Methods   of 
Mounting  Pictures.     Making  Photograph  Frames.     Frames  covered  with  Plush 
and  Cork.     Hanging  and  Packing  Pictures. 
Smiths'  Work.     With  211  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

rt?^?^;^/^.— Forges  and  Appliances.  Hand  Tools.  Drawing  Down  and  Up- 
setting Welding  and  Punching.  Conditions  of  Work  :  Principles  of  Forma- 
tion, iieiidin^  and  Ring  Making.  Miscellaneous  Examples  of  Forged  Work. 
Cranks,  Model  Work,  and  Die  Forging.  Home-made  Forges.  The  Manipula- 
tion of  Steel  at  the  Forge.  (Continued  on  next  pa^e. ) 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  604-608  South  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


HANDICRAFT  SERIES   (continued). 

Glass  Working  by   Heat   and    Abrasion.     With  300  Engravings 

and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Appliances  used  in  Glass  Blowing.  Manipulating  Glass  Tubing. 
Blowing  Bulbs  and  Flasks.  Jointing  Tubes  to  Bulbs  forming  Thistle  Funnels, 
etc.  Blowing  and  Etching  Glass  Fancy  Articles  ;  Embossing  and  Gilding  Flat 
Surfaces.  Utilising  Broken  Glass  Apparatus  ;  Boring  Holes  in,  and  Riveting 
Glass.  Hand-working  of  Telescope  Specula.  Turning,  Chipping,  and  Grinding 
Glass.  The  Manufacture  of  Glass. 
Building  Model  Boats.     With  168  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents.— BaMing  Model  Yachts.  Rigging  and  Sailing  Model  Yachts. 
Making  and  Fitting  Simple  Model  Boats.  Building  a  Model  Atlantic  Liner. 
Vertical  Engine  for  a  Model  Launch.  Model  Launch  Engine  with  Reversing 
Gear.     Making  a  Show  Case  for  a  Model  Boat. 

Electric  Bells,   How  to  Make  and   Fit  Them.    With  162  En- 
graving  s  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — The  Electr  c  Current  and  the  Laws  that  Govern  it.  Current 
Conductors  used  in  Electric-Bell  Work.  Wiring  for  Electric  Bells.  Elaborated 
Systems  of  Wiring  ;  Burglar  Alarms.  Batteries  for  Electric  Bells.  The  Con- 
struction of  Electric  Bells,  Pushes,  and  Switches.  Indicators  for  Electric-Bell 
Systems. 
Bamboo  Work.     With  177  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Bamboo  ;  Its  Sources  and  Uses.  How  to  Work  Bamboo.  Bamboo 
Tables.  Bamboo  Chairs  and  Seats.  Bamboo  Bedroom  Furniture.  Bamboo 
Hall  Racks  and  Stands.  Bamboo  Music  Racks.  Bamboo  Cabinets  and  Book- 
cases. Bambco  Window  Blinds.  Miscellaneous  Articles  of  Bamboo.  Bamboo 
Mail  Cart. 
Taxidermy.     With  108  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

C'>ntents.—^\jmmx\%  Birds.  Staffing  and  Mounting  Birds.  Skinning  and 
Stuffing  Mammals.  Mounting  Animals'  Horned  Heads  :  Polishing  and  Mount- 
ing Horns.  Skinning,  Stuffing,  and  Casting  Fish,  Pieserving,  Cleaning,  and 
Dyeing  Skins.  Preserving  Insects,  and  Birds'  Eggs.  Cases  for  Mounting 
Specimens. 
Tailoring;.     With  180  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Tailors'  Requisites  and  Methods  of  Stitching.  Simple  Repairs 
and  Pressing.  Relining,  Repocketing,  and  Recollaring.  How  to  Cut  and 
Make  Trousers.  How  to  Cut  and  Make  Vests.  Cutting  and  Making  Lounge 
and  Reefer  Jackets.  Cutting  and  Making  Morning  and  Frock  Coats. 
Photographic  Cameras  and  Accessories.  Comprising  How  to 
Make  Cameras,  Dark  Slices,  Shutters,  and  Stands.  With  160 
Illustrations. 

Contents. — Photographic  Lenses  and  How  to  Test  them.  Modern  Half-plate 
Cameras.  Hand  and  Pocket  Cameras.  Ferrotype  Cameras.  Stereoscopic 
Cameras.     Enlarging  Cameras.     Dark  Slides.     Cinematograph  Management. 

Optical  Lanterns.     Comprising  The  Construction  and  Management 
OF  Optical  Lanterns    and    the    Making  of  Slides.      With    160 
Illustrations. 
Contents. — Single   Lanterns.      Dissolving   View   Lanterns.      Illuminant  for 
Optical   Lanterns.       Optical    Lantern  Accessories.       Conducting   a   Limelight 
Lantern   Exhibition.     Experiments  with  Optical  Lanterns.     Painting  Lantern 
Slides.     Photographic  Lantern  Slides.     Mechanical  Lantern  Slides.     Cinemato- 
graph Management. 

Engraving  Metals.     With  Numerous  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Introduction  and  Terms  used.  Engravers'  Tools  and  their  Uses. 
Elementary  Exercises  in  Engraving.  Engraving  Plate  and  Precious  Metals. 
Engraving  Monograms.  Transfer  Processes  of  Engraving  Metals.  Engraving 
Name  Plates.  Engraving  Coffin  Plates.  Engravmg  Steel  Plates.  Chasing 
and  Embossing  Metals.     Etching  Metals. 

Basket  Work.     With  189  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Tools  and  Materials.  Simple  Baskets.  Grocer's  Square  Baskets. 
Rouna  baskets.  Oval  Baskets.  Flat  Fruit  Baskets.  Wicker  Elbow  Chairs. 
Baskf '■  oottle-casings.  Doctors'  and  Chemists'  Baskets.  Fancy  Basket  Work. 
Sussex  Trug  Basket.     Miscellaneous  Basket  Work.     Index 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  604-608  South  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


HANDICRAFT  SERIES   (continued). 

Bookbinding.     With  125  Engravings  and  Diagrams.. 

Contents. — Bookbinders'  Appliances.  Folding  Printed  Book  Sheets.  Beat- 
ingand  Sewing.  Rounding,  Backing,  and  Cover  Cutting.  Cutting  Book  Edges. 
Covering  Books.  Cloth-bound  Books,  Pamphlets,  etc.  Account  Books, 
Ledgers,  etc.  Coloring,  Sprinkling,  and  Marbling  Book  Edges.  Marbling 
Book  Papers.  Gilding  Book  Edges.  Sprinkling  and  Tree  Marbling  Book 
Covers.  Lettering,  Gilding,  and  Finishing  Book  Covers.  Index. 
Bent  Iron  Work,  including  Elementary  Art  Metal  Work.  With 
269  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Tools  and  Materials.  Bending  and  Working  Strip  Iron.  Simple 
Exercises  in  Bent  Iron.  Floral  Ornaments  for  Bent  Iron  Work.  Candlesticks. 
Hall  Lanterns.  Screens,  Grilles,  etc.  Table  Lamps.  Suspended  Lamps  and 
Flower  Bowls.  Photograph  Frames.  Newspaper  Rack.  Floor  Lamps. 
Miscellaneous  Examples.    Index. 

Photography.     With  70  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Concents. —  i'he  Camera  and  its  Accessories.  The  Studio  and  Darkroom. 
Plates.  Exposure.  Developing  and  Fixing  Negatives.  Intensification  and 
Reduction  of  Negatives.  Portraiture  and  Picture  Composition.  Flashlight 
Photography.  Retouching  Negatives.  Processes  of  Printing  from  Negatives. 
Mounting  and  Finishing  Prints.  Copying  and  Enlarging.  Stereoscopic 
Photography.     Ferrotype  Photography.     Index. 

Upholstery.     With  162  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. -A] •ph.oh.tcr&rs'  Materials.  Upholsterers'  Tools  and  Appliances. 
Webbing,  Springing,  Stuffing,  and  Tufting.  Making  Seat  Cushions  and  Squabs. 
Upholstering  an  Easy  Chair.  Upholstering  Couches  and  Sofas.  Upholstering 
Footstools,  Fenderettes,  etc.  Miscellaneous  Upholstery.  Mattress  Making 
and  Repairing.  Fancy  Upholstery.  Renovating  and  Repairing  Upholstered 
Furniture.     Planning  and  Laying  Carpets  and  Linoleum.     Index. 

Leather   Working.     With  152  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Qualities  and  Varieties  of  Leather.  Strap  Cutting  and  Making. 
Letter  Cases  and  Writing  Pads.  Hair  Brush  and  Collar  Cases.  Hat  Cases. 
Banjo  and  Mandoline  Cases.  Bags.  Portmanteaux  and  Travelling  Trunks. 
Knapsacks  and  Satchels.  Leather  Ornamentation.  Footballs.  Dyeing 
Leather,     Miscellaneous  Examples  of  Leather  Work.     Index. 

Harness    Making,     with  197  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Harness  Makers'  Tools.  Harness  Makers'  Materials.  Simple 
Exercises  in  Stitching.  Looping.  Cart  Harness.  Cart  Collars.  Cart  Saddles. 
Fore  Gear  and  Leader  Harness.  Plough  Harness.  Bits,  Spurs,  Stirrups,  and 
Harness  Furniture.     Van  and  Cab  Harness.     Index. 

Saddlery.     With  99  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Gentleman's  Riding  Saddle.  Panel  for  Gentleman's  Saddle. 
Ladies' Side  Saddles.  Children's  Saddles  or  Pilches.  Saddle  Cruppers,  Breast- 
plates, and  other  Accessories.  Riding  Bridles.  Breaking-down  Tackle  Head 
Collars.  Horse  Clothing.  Knee-caps  and  Miscellaneous  Articles.  Repairing 
Harness  and  Saddlery.  Re-lining  Collars  and  Saddles.  Riding  and  Driving 
Whips.     Superior  Set  of  Gig  Harness.     Index. 

Knotting  and  Splicing,  Ropes  and  Cordage.    With  208 

Engravings  and  Diagrams. 
Contents.— IntroAuction.  Rope  Formatior..  Simple  and  Useful  Knots. 
Eye  Knots,  Hitches  and  Bends.  Ring  Knots  and  Rope  Shortenings,  lies 
and  Lashings.  Fancy  Knots.  Rope  Splicing.  Working  Cordage.  Ham- 
mock Making.  Lashings  and  Ties  for  bcafifolding.  Splicing  and  Socketing 
Wire  Ropes.     Index. 

Beehives  and  Beekeepers'  Appliances.    With  155  Engravings 

and  Diagrams. 
Contents. — Introduction.  A  Bar-Frame  Beehive.  Temporary  Beehive. 
Tiering  Bar-Frame  Beehive.  The  "  W.  B.  C."  Beehive.  Furnishing  and 
Stocking  a  Beehive.  Observatory  Beehive  for  Permanent  Use.  Observatory 
Beehive  for  Temporary  Use.  Inspection  Case  for  Beehives.  Hive  for  Rear- 
ing Queen  Bees.  Super-Clearers.  Bee  Smoker.  Honey  Extractors.  Wax 
Extractors-     Beekeepers'  Miscellaneous  Appliances.     Index. 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  604-608  South  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


HOUSE 
DECORATION 


COMPRISING    WHITEWASHING, 
PAPERHANGING,  PAINTING,  etc. 


With  Numerous  Engravings  and  Diagrams 


EDITED  BY#^ 

PAUL    N/'^HASLUCK  ^^ 


iiuS'::'  *        EGK  LIBU Ait X. 

CHKblxN  U'i  HILL,  MASS., 


PHILADELPHIA 

DAVID    McKAY,    PUBLISHER 

604-8  S.  WASHINGTON  SQUARE 
1914 


A 


.^ 


PUBLISHERS'   NOTE 

This  treatise  on  House  Decoration  is  issued  in  the 
confident  belief  that  it  is  not  only  thoroughly  practical 
and  reliable,  but  is  so  simply  worded  that  even  in- 
experienced  readers  can  understand  it.  Should  anyone, 
however,  encounter  unexpected  difficulty,  he  has  only 
to  address  a  question  to  the  Editor  of  either  Work 
or  Building  Woeld,  La  Belle  Sauvage,  London,  E.G., 
and  his  query  will  be  answered  in  the  columns  of  one 
of  these  journals. 


/• 


>"» 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAOB 

I:— On  Colour  and  Paints.        ;        ,        ...      9 

II.— Pigments 29 

III. — Oils,  Driers,  Yarnislies,  etc 47 

IV. — Tools  used  by  Painters 59 

v.— How  to  Mix  Oil  Paints 74 

YI. — ^Distemper  or  Tempera  Painting  .         ,         .91 

VII. — Whitewashing  and  Decorating  a  Ceiling    .         .103 

VIII.— Painting  a  Eoom 114 

IX. — Papering  a  Room .133 

X. — Embellishment  of  Walls  and  Ceilings         .         .  144 
Index 157 


LIST    OP    ILLUSTEATIONS 


yiQ, 


FAOB 


1.— The  Mixing  of  Colours 15 

2. — Primary  Colours  Applied  to  Form  on  Gwen  Jones's 

Principle  16 

3.— Positions  of  Primary  Colours  Reversed  .  .  .17 
4.— Cornice  Tinting  suited  for  a  Bedroom  .  .  .18 
5. — Cornice  Tinting  suited  for  a  Sitting-room  .  ,19 
6. — Cornice  Tinting  suited  for  a  Dining-room  ,  .  20 
7. — Cornice  Tinting  suited  for  a  Drawing-room    ,        ,    21 

8. — Ceiling  and  Dado  Colourings 23 

9. — Cornice  Colourings,  after  Owen  Jones  .  ,  .24 
10. — Ordinary  House-Painter's  Brush  .  .  ,  .60 
11. — House-Painter's  ordinary  Oval  Brush  .  ,  .61 
12. — Cheap  Style  of  Brush,  with  Copper  Binding    .        .    61 

13.— English  Sash  Tool 61 

14.— Small  Sash  Tool 61 

15.— German  Paint  Tool .61 

16. — Long-Haired  Sash  Tool      .«...,     62 

17.— Quilled  Sash  Tool .62 

18.— Sash  Tool  for  General  Use 62 

19.— Sash-Painting  Tool 62 

20.— Hog-hair  Fitch  in  round  Tin    .....    62 

21.— Hog-hair  in  flat  Tin 62 

22.— Hog-hair  flat  Tool      .......     62 

23.— French  round  Tool 63 

24. — Oval  bevelled  Varnish  Brush 63 

25. — Flat  Yamish  Brush  in  Tin 63 

26.— Varnishing  Fitch 63 

27. — House-Painters'  Dusting  Brush        ,        ,        .        .    64 
28.— Stencil  Tool       .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .    64 

29. — Lining  Fitch  in  flat  Handle      -        ....    64 

30.— Hog-hair  Lining  Fitch 64 

31.— Section  of  Straight-Edge .65 

32. — Best  form  of  Distemper  Brush  .        ,        .        ,        .    65 

33.— Washing  Brush 65 

34. — Paddle  Distemper  Brush  on  Nailed  Stock         .        ,     65 
35.— Limer,  used  with  a  long  Handle       ,        .        .        .66 

36. — Scotch  Distemper  Brush 66 

§7.— Pasting  Brush  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .66 


8  List  of  Illustrations. 

no.  PAGE 

38.— Stippler      .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .67 

39.— Stippler  with  Reversible  Handle       ....    67 

40.— Stippler  witli  Bridge  Handle 67 

41  to  44.— How  to  Tie  a  Paint  Brusli  .  ,  .  .68 
45. — Preserving  Paint  Brushes  .....    69 

46. — Paint  Straining  Sieve 70 

47.— Patent  Paint  Strainer 70 

48.— Chisel-pointed  Stopping  Knife 71 

49.— Stopping  Knife 71 

50.— Chisel  or  Broad  Knife 71 

51.— Palette  Knife 72 

52.— Glazier's  Putty  Knife 72 

53.— Glazier's  Hacking  Knife 72 

54. — Portable  Balcony  in  Position  for  Use  .  ,  .73 
55. — Perspective  Sketch  of  Portable  Balcony  ,  .  .73 
56. — Ceiling  divided  into  four  Simple  Panels  .        .        .110 

57. — Ceiling  with  Circular  Centre Ill 

58. — Ceiling  with  Octagonal  Centre 112 

59. — Ceiling  with  Square  Central  Panel    ....  113 

60. — Paperhanger's  Brush 137 

61. — Paperhanger's  Roller  .  .  .  ,  .  .  137 
62. — Four  Designs  for  Ashlar  Work  Dado  .  .  .  144 
63. — Coloured  Plaster  Cornice  with  Stencilled  Frieze  .  145 
64, — Grecian  Style  Pattern  for  Stencil      .        .        .        .146 

65.— Design  for  Stencil  Frieze 147 

^^. — Design  for  Base  Border 147 

67, — Stencil  Designs  for  entire  Wall         ....  148 

68.— Design  for  Filling  enlarged 149 

69. — ^Design  for  Dado  enlarged 149 

70. — Border  Ornament  for  Ceiling 150 

71. — Deep  Frieze  Ornament 150 

72. — Base  Border  Ornament 151 

73.— Design  for  Border 152 

74. — Design  for  Border ,        .  152 

75. — Deep  Frieze  Decoration 153 

76. — Dado  in  Borders  and  Panels 153 

77. — Comer  of  Ceiling  Stencilled  in  Colours    .        .         .154 

78. — How  to  Draw  a  Stencil 155 

79.— Design  fox  Ceiling  EmbelLLshmeflit   t        t        •        .156 


HOUSE    DECORATION 


CHAPTER    L 

ON  COLOUR  AND  PAINTS. 

The  work  of  the  house-painter  chiefly  consists  in 
applying  an  impervious  coat,  of  which  linseed-oil  is  the 
base,  to  the  exposed  surfaces  of  buildings,  either  as  a 
preventive  against  decay  or  for  ornamental  purposes, 
or  both.  In  external  work,  the  chief  uses  of  paint  are  to 
protect  the  material  beneath  from  the  destructive  influ- 
ence of  alternate  wet  and  dry,  from  frost,  the  sun's 
rays,  and  the  acids  present  in  the  atmosphere,  especially 
in  that  of  large  towns,  and  to  write  names  over  shop 
fronts,  called  facia-writing.  In  internal  work,  paint  is 
principally  employed  for  decorative  and  ornamental 
purposes  ;  and' it  is  to  these  that  this  book  is  devoted. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  student  and  worker  in  paints 
should  clearly  understand  the  difference  between  the  two 
terms  pigments  and  colour,  oftentimes  confounded. 
Colour  is  but  a  sensation  conveyed  to  the  brain  by  the 
action  of  light  upon  the  nerve-fibres  of  the  retina. 
Pigments,  on  the  other  hand,  are  substances  which, 
when  acted  upon  by  light,  absorb  certain  of  the  rays  of 
colour  therein  contained,  and,  by  either  reflection  or 
transmission,  give  forth  that  particular  colour  by  which 
they  are  known.  It  wiU  readily  be  understood  that 
colour  and  pigment  is  not  in  any  way  a  distinction  of 
terms  only. 

The  house-painter,  however,  deals  with  pigments, 
colour  being  the  resultant  effect.  The  term  pigment,  as 
already  mentioned,  implies  the  substances  or  materials 
that  are  laid  upon  surfaces  to  impart  colour,  and  the  laws 
that  govern  the  mixing  of  pigments  are  not  identical  with 


lo  House  Decoration. 

those  tliat  control  the  blending  of  colours.  For  instance, 
the  addition  of  yellow  pigment  to  blue  will  result  in  a 
mixture  having  a  green  hue ;  although  the  union  of  blue 
and  yellow  colours  will  result  in  white. 

It  will  be  well  at  the  commencement  of  this  hand- 
book to  briefly  state  the  meaning  of  the  more  technical 
terms  used  in  the  text,  so  that  the  author's  meaning  may 
be  made  plain  to  the  reader's  understanding. 

Pigment  is  any  colouring  substance  or  material  from 
which  a  dye,  a  paint,  or  the  like,  may  be  prepared  ;  the 
term  is  applied  particularly  to  the  refined  and  purified 
colouring  matter  ready  for  mixing  with  an  appropriate 
vehicle. 

Oil-colour  is  a  paint  made  by  grinding  a  colouring 
substance  in  oil ;  the  term  is  applied  to  such  paints 
taken  in  a  general  sense. 

Vehicle  is  any  liquid  with  which  a  pigment  is 
applied,  including  whatever  gum,  wax,  or  glutinous  or 
adhesive  substance  is  combined  with  it.  Water]  is  used 
in  fresco  and  in  water-colour  painting,  the  colours  being 
consolidated  with  gum-arabic  ;  size  is  used  in  distemper 
painting.  In  oil  painting,  the  fixed  oils  of  linseed,  nut, 
and  poppy  are  used  ;  in  encaustic,  wax  is  the  vehicle. 

Driers  is  drying  oil,  a  substance  being  mingled  with 
the  oil  used  in  oil  painting  to  make  it  dry  quickly. 

Oil  of  turpentine,  or  spirit  of  turpentine,  is  a  colour- 
less oily  hydrocarbon  of  a  pleasant  aromatic  odour, 
obtained  by  the  distillation  of  crude  turpentine,  which 
is  an  exudation  of  the  terebinth,  or  turpentine-tree. 

Varnish  is  a  viscid  liquid,  consisting  of  a  solution  of 
resinous  matter  in  an  oil  or  a  volatile  liquid,  laid  on 
work  with  a  brush  or  otherwise.  When  applied,  the 
varnish  soon  dries,  either  by  evaporation  or  by  chemical 
action,  and  the  resinous  part  forms  thus  a  smooth  hard 
surface  with  a  beautiful  gloss,  capable  of  resisting  to:  a 
greater  or  less  degree  the  influence  of  air  and  moisture. 
According  to  the  sorts  of  solvents  employed,  the  ordi- 
nary kinds  of  varnish  are  divided  into  three  classes-^ 
spirit,  turpentine,  and  oil  varnishea. 


On  Colour  and  Paints.  il 

Tempera  is  a  mode  or  process  of  painting  :  the  term 
Is  applied  especially  to  early  Italian  painting,  common 
vehicles  of  which  were  yolk  of  Qgg^  yolk  and  white  of 
Qgg  mixed  together,  the  white  juice  of  the  fig-tree,  and 
the  like.  Distemper  is  a  preparation  of  opaque  or  body 
colour,  in  which  the  pigments  are  tempered  or  diluted 
with  weak  glue  or  size  (if  tempera)  instead  of  oil,  usually 
for  scene-painting  or  for  walls  and  ceilings  of  rooms. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  further  define  some  of  the 
terms  that  are  frequently  used  in  treating  of  colour. 
The  principal  quality  of  a  colour  is  its  hue.  It  is  this 
that  first  appeals  to  the  sight,  and  by  which  we  are  able 
to  name  the  colour ;  and  we  speak  of  it  as  red  of  an 
orange  hue,  or  green  of  a  bluish  hue. 

Pure  colour  is  absolutely  free  from  any  admixture  of 
white.  Brightness,  or  luminosity^  is  a  term  that  has 
reference  to  the  amount  of  light  the  colour  reflects  to  the 
eye.  These  three  qualities — hue,  purity,  and  brightness, 
or  luminosity — are  termed  the  constants  of  colour. 

The  term  tone  must  not  be  confounded  with  bright- 
ness. The  latter  has  reference  to  the  quantity  of 
sensation  caused  to  the  optic  nerves^by  a  given  area, 
and  is  measured  by  the  amount  of  light  reflected  by  the 
colour. 

Tones  are  estimated  by  the  absolute  amount  of  colour 
sensation  they  excite.  They  may  be  grouped  into  three 
series  for  every  possible  hue  or  kind  of  colour,  according 
as  these  hues  are  admixed  with  white,  with  black,  or 
with  both  black  and  white,  or  grey.  Apart  from  any 
alteration  of  hue  which  may  occur  by  such  admixtures, 
it  may  be  affirmed  that  a  normal  colour  is  weakened  or 
reduced  by  the  addition  of  white,  producing  tones  in  a 
scale  of  series  from  deep  to  pale ;  and  a  normal  colour 
is  made  darker,  but  not  deeper,  by  the  addition  of 
black. 

Tones  belonging  to  any  of  the  above  series  are  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  shades,  but  it  is  better  to  limit  the 
use  of  this  term  to  admixtures  with  black.  A  scale 
is  a  regular  series  of  such  tones  as  thos^  which  hav§ 


12  House  Decoration. 

been  defined  above.      So  each   hue   admits   of  three 
scales  : — 

(1)  The  reduced  scale — that  is,  the  normal  hue 
mixed  with  progressive  increments  of  white,  thus  form- 
ing tints.  ; 

(2)  The  darkened  scale — that  is,  the  normal  hue 
mixed  with  progressive  increments  of  black,  thus  form- 
ing shades. 

(3)  The  dulled  scale — that  is,  the  normal  hue  mixed 
with  progressive  increments  of  grey,  thus  forming  broken 
tints,  commonly  called  "  greys." 

There  are  several  ways  of  preparing  a  series  of  tones 
belonging  to  each  of  the  scales,  assuming  that  we  are 
dealing  with  pure  pigments,  and  not  with  coloured 
lights.  To  obtain  a  scale  of,  say,  ten  tints  of  a  colour, 
add  one-twentieth  of  zinc-white  for  the  first  tint,  two- 
twentieths  for  the  second,  three-twentieths  for  the  third, 
and  so  on  up  to  half  and  half  for  the  tenth  tint. 

In  a  lecture  on  "  Colour,"  given  in  February,  1894, 
at  the  Koyal  Institution,  by  Professor  Shelford  Bidwell, 
amongst  the  curious  things  the  audience  learned  was  the 
fact  that  green  is  not,  as  generally  supposed,  a  compound 
colour,  made  up  of  blue  and  yellow.  This  was  clearly 
demonstrated  by  projecting  a  disc  of  pure  blue  upon  a 
screen,  and  over  it  another  disc  of  pure  yellow.  The 
result  was  not  green,  but  white.  The  explanation  of  the 
popular  error  is  that  when  ordinary  impure  blues  and 
yellows  are  mixed,  the  dominant  colours  neutralise  each 
other,  and  leave  the  impurities  visible.  These  impurities 
invariably  show  up  as  greens.  Yellow  itself  was  proved 
by  lantern-slide  to  be  capable  of  being  made  by  green 
and  red  rays  projected  jointly  on  the  screen. 

Lord  Rayleigh  also  lectured  on  "Colour"  at  the 
Royal  Institution  during  the  same  month,  and,  in  dealing 
with  the  colours  of  opaque  objects,  showed  that  the  usual 
statement  that  such  colours  are  due  to  the  reflection  of 
light  requires  qualifying.  Besides  reflection,  there  is 
absorption.  A  glass  dishful  of  coloured  transparent  liquid 
appears  black  until  some  object  which  reflects  light  is 


On  Colour  and  Paints.  13 

placed  behind  it ;  and  practically  the  same  thing  takes 
place  with  coloured  paper  or  cloth.  Water  and  clear 
glass  reflect  scarcely  any  rays,  whilst  snow  or  powdered 
glass  reflects  nearly  all.  The  irregularly  disposed  sur- 
faces of  the  crystals  throw  off  light  in  every  direction ; 
but  as  soon  as  a  fluid  medium  having  the  same  reflecting 
index  is  used  to  fill  up  the  interstices,  transparency  is 
restored.  A  vessel  filled  with  powdered  glass  and  cold 
bisulphide  of  carbon  allows  only  green  rays  to  pass 
through,  but  on  being  warmed,  only  yellow  rays  appear. 

To  illustrate  the  effect  of  mixing  white  with  colour, 
a  disc  was  made  to  rotate  quickly,  and  segments  of  vary- 
ing proportions  fixed  to  it,  one  after  another,  produced 
variations  in  tint — the  ruddiest  crimson  appearing  as 
pale  pink  when  a  large  proportion  of  the  colour  was 
covered  by  the  white.'  "By  using  a  non-reflecting  black 
in  place  of  the  white,  the  hue  was  changed  to  a  darker 
one.  Newton  essayed  to  work  out  the  resultant  of  a 
number  of  colours  when  mixed,  just  as  the  resultant  of 
a  number  of  forces  can  be  ascertained  by  mathematics ; 
but  the  method  he  adopted  is  now  proved  to  have  been 
inaccurate.  The  lecturer  reminded  his  audience  that 
blue,  green,  and  red  are  now  considered  as  the  primary 
colours,  yellow  having  been  rejected  from  scientific 
inclusion.  Pure  green  and  pure  red  rays  projected  from 
a  lantern  on  a  white  screen  produce  yellow. 

Recent  researches  on  the  phenomena  of  colours  render 
it  likely  that  every  tint,  and  hue,  and  shade  of  dye  will 
ere  long  be  accurately  describable  in  words  alone.  Lord 
Rayleigh  pointed  out  as  an  instance  of  colour  compounds 
that  100  parts  of  blue,  50  of  white,  and  42  of  red  produce 
the  same  colour  as  64  parts  yellow  and  128  blue.  Again, 
135  parts  of  black,  21  of  white,  and  36  of  yellow  com- 
pound a  colour  identical  with  123  of  red  and  67  of  green. 
Thus  is  colour  reducible  to  formulas  not  unlike  chemical 
equations. 

For  the  purpose  of  practical  illustration,  let  us 
assume  that  the  early  chromatic  equivalents  of  M. 
Chevreuil  and  George  Field  aie  correct— viz.,  that  the 


14  House  Decoration. 

primary,  or  first,  colours  are  pure  red,  pure  blue,  and 
pure  yellow ;  that  each  primary  is  contrasted  hir- 
moniously  with  or  neutralised  by  a  mixture  of  the  two 
other  primaries  in  certain  proportions,  which  mixture  is 
named  a  secondary ;  and,  further,  that  each  secondary  is 
balanced  by  a  certain  mixture  of  the  two  remaining 
secondaries,  termed  a  tertiary  colour.  The  total  purport 
of  this  is,  therefore  :  primaries — red,  blue,  and  yellow ; 
secondaries — purple  (red  and  blue),  green  (blue  and 
yellow)  and  orange  (yellow  and  red);  tertiaries — olive 
(green  and  purple),  russet  (orange  and  purple),  and 
citrine  (orange  and  green).  ^ 

The  primary  pigments,  being  the  first  simple  division, 
consist  of  blues,  reds,  and  yellows.  By  combining 
chemically  suitable  blue  and  red,  we  obtain  purple; 
with  red  and  yellow  we  get  orange;  whilst  blue  and 
yellow  pigments  combine  to  give  us  green  colours  or 
sensations.  These  resultant  admixtures  of  any  two 
primaries  are  termed  secc/ndary  colours ;  and  again  by 
a  similar  process  of  mixing,  in  certain  proportions,  two 
of  the  secondary  pigments  together,  we  obtain  the  third 
distinct  class  into  which  we  divide  our  coloursj  which 
third  division  is  known  as  the  tertiary  colours. 

With  the  primary  pigments  at  hand,  almost  every 
variety  of  colour  requisite  or  desirable  for  our  ordinary 
use  can  be  prepared. 

The  diagram  on  p.  15  shows  the  complementary 
colour  to  each  primary,  and  the  two  complementaries  to 
each  secondary : 

Primaries  :  Red,  Blue,  Yellow. 

Secondaries  :  Purple,  Orange,  Green. 

Tertiaries :  Brown,  Slate,  Olive. 

A  primary  colour  is  complementary  to  the  colour 
formed  by  mixture  of  the  other  two  primaries  : 

Red  complementary  to  Green. 

Blue  complementary  to  Orange. 

Yellow  complementary  to  Purple. 
A  secondary  is  complementary  to  the  colour  formed 


On  Colour  and  Paints.  15 

by  mixture  of  the  other  two  secondaries,  and  also  to  the 
primary  to  which  it  is  complementary  : 

Green  complementary  to  Brown  or  Red. 

Orange  complementary  to  Slate  or  Blue. 

Purple  complementary  to  Olive  or  Yellow. 
A  colour's  pure  complement  is  formed  of  equal  parts 
of  each,  and  in  this  diagram  all  colours  are  as  above — 
though,  of  course,  different  tones  can  be  made  up  by 
unequal  proportions.  Light  being  the  source  of  colour, 
it  can  only  be  divided  into  its  components. 

The  dominant  impressions  that  the  primary  colours 


Fig.  1.— The  Mixing  of  Colours. 

convey  to  the  mind  through  the  vision  are  briefly  as 
follows.  Ked  gives  richness  and  warmth  of  sentiment, 
and  appears  stationary  of  position  when  applied  to  form. 
Blue  speaks  of  space  and  coolness,  and  will  give  a 
retiring  effect  to  form.  Yellow  conveys  several  sensa- 
tions, and  is  most  difficult  to  successfully  manipulate : 
it  is  considered  chiefly  an  exciting  power,  which  may 
verge  from  high  brilliancy  and  lustre  to  very  garish  and 
irritating  effects.  Beyond  this,  in  its  application  to 
form,  yellow  has  a  prominent  or  advancing  appearance. 
Every  definite  colour  has  its  contrast  and  comple- 
mentary :  that  is,  a  colour  in  appearance  and  sentiment 
directly  opposite,  but  which, when  placed  in  juxtaposition. 


i6 


House  Decoration. 


improves  and  heightens  the  effect,  and  combines  so 
as  to  produce  the  sensation  of  colour  harmony.  In  the 
selection  of  colour  for  decoration,  contrast  is  therefore 
one  scheme  we  may  choose. 

With  various  sentiments  of  colour  under  one  roof, 
satisfactory  contrast  should  exist  between  them. 

The  alternative  scheme  for  colouring  is  harmony, 


YELLOW 


WHITE 


Fig.  2. — Primary  Colours  Applied  to  Form  on  Owen 
Jones's  Principle. 

which  is  produced  by  employing  a  graduated  scale  of 
colour. 

Owen  Jones  gave  in  the  year  1852  this  dogma  or  pro- 
position : — Colour  is  used  to  assist  in  the  development 
of  form,  and  to  distinguish  objects,  or  parts  of  objects, 
one  from  another.  Mr.  Ruskin's  theory  is — that  the  first 
great  principle  of  architectural  colour  is  this  :  let  it  be 
visibly  independent  of  form. 

Since  these  theories  were  propounded,  much  progress 
has  been  made  in  decorative  art  and  colouring  and  modern 
conclusions  concerning  the  relationship  of  colour  to  form 


On  Colour  and  Paints. 


n 


now  incline  to  this  ;— That  the  two  systems,  whilst  being 
quite  distinctive  and  separate,  may  be  so  combined  as  to 
materially  enhance  the  beauty  and  effect  of  both. 

Here  let  us  turn  to  Fig.  2,  representing  the  section  of 
a  cornice  used  by  Owen  Jones  to  explain  his  theory. 
In  the  shade,  red  is  placed  to  soften  its  brightness  ;  on 
the  most  prominent  form,  yellow  is  put  to  assist  its 
shape ;  the  concave  moulding  is  coloured  blue.     White 


Fijr.  8. — Positions  of  Primary  Colours  revprsed  from  those 
ehown  on  p.  16. 


intervenes  between  them  on  the  vertical  planes,  to 
prevent  one  primary  impinging  on  the  other.  This  is 
really  but  applying  to  mouldings  the  colours  best 
adapted  to  displaying  their  shape  ;  it  does  not  secure 
colour  harmony  even  in  the  cornice  itself,  and  much  less 
in  the  cornice  and  the  supporting  wall.  An  idea  of  how 
far  colour  does  assist  form  may  be  got  from  Fig.  3, 
where  colour  is  represented  by  shade.  The  scheme  of 
Fig.  2  is  as  described  above ;  at  Fig.  3  the  colours  are 


i8 


House  Decor atiojsi. 


reversed.  Colour  harmony  is  still  independent  of  eithei 
arrangement. 

In  sleeping  apartments,  pure  and  simple,  white  must 
stand  pre-eminent  as  correct  expression.  Nevertheless, 
many  probably  prefer  the  dominant  white  toned  down 
with  a  little  warmth  (red),  or  soft  repose  (blue)  ;  or,  if 
badly  served  with  Nature's  brilliance  and  strength,  we 
may  use  a  blithe  yellow. 

The  tinting  of  an  ordinary  bedroom  cornice  is  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  4  ;  it  assumes  a  bedroom  of  cold  aspect,  with 


Fig.  4. — Cornice  Tinting:  suited  for  a  Bedroom. 

the  walls  hung  with  a  paper  in  self-tones  of  salmon-buff, 
the  flat  ceiling  being  distempered  a  warm  cream,  made  by 
mixing  raw  sienna  with  white.  The  mouldings  next  to 
the  paper  should  be  made  a  warm  mossy  green,  made 
from  ochre,  umber,  a  little  ultramarine  green  (a  blue  of 
very  green  hue)  and  a  little  white.  The  green  hue  must 
be  very  subdued,  since  the  warm  walls  will  bring  it  out 
into  prominenca     A  light  tint  of  warm  colour  is  put  iit 


On  Colour  and  Paints. 


19 


the  cove,  which,  by  reason  of  the  shade,  will  look  a  little 
deeper ;  this  same  tint  is  used  on  the  flat,  next  cornice. 
The  mouldings  between  cove  and  flat  are  coloured  a  little 
lighter  tint  of  the  moss  green,  made  by  adding  to  the 
latter  some  of  the  ceiling  cream-colour.  If  handled  with 
care  and  judgment,  the  result  will  be  harmonious  and 
effective,  with  only  three  tints  of  colour. 

Another  example  (Fig.  5)  shows  a  room  cornice  which 


I  WARM 

Figr.  5. — Cornice  Tintingr  sizited  tor  a  Sitting-- room. 

provides  for  a  neutral,  or  warm  gre§n,  flatted  wall-colour. 
Next^o  this  is  a  soft  terra-cotta,  or  reddish-brown,  a  few 
shades  darker  than  the  wall ;  above  this  a  band  of  wall- 
colour,  and  this  framed  by  the  previous  terra-cotta  at  a 
below  and  a  lighter  shade  at  b  above.  The  cove  is 
painted  in  a  lighter  and  more  yellow  tint  of  the  walls. 


2b 


House  Decoration, 


bounded  also  on  top  by  the  lighter  terra-cotta  tint.  A 
deep-cream  fiat  comes  next,  then  the  ogee  in  a  light  tint 
of  greeny-blue,  which  is  separated  from  a  faint  and  soft 
salmon-tint  on  ceiling  by  a  small  cream  flat. 

Fig.  6  represents  colour  applied  to  a  cornice  in  a  room 
over  a  rich  and  glowing  wall-paper  of  semi-natural  floral 


Fig.  6. — CoraJce  Tinting:  suited  for  a  Dmmg-room. 


design,  the  colours  being  warm  greens  and  browns,  with 
flowers  in  mixtures  of  soft  rich  red,  old  gold,  and  a  little 
"  gobelin  "  or  greenish-blue.  The  ceiling  is  coated  with 
a  soft  but  decided  pink  tint,  made  with  Venetian  red  and 
ochre,  and  next  to  cornice  there  is  a  margin  8  in.  wide  in 
a  deeper  shade  of  the  same  colour.  The  base  of  cornice 
is  a  medium  bronze-green,  the  cove  Indian  red  and  a 
little  white — deeper  than  the  b^se  in  tone.     The  margin, 


On  Colour  and  Paints. 


21 


colour  is  put  on  the  flat  above  a  medium  tint  of  soft 
gobelin  blue  at  tbe  flat  and  hollow  next  to  the  cove,  and 
the  remaining  members  warm  buff  and^a  greenish-yellow 
or  light  mossy  green.  The  lines  and  ornament  may  be 
in  terra-cotta,  moss  green,  and  light  gobelin  blue  upon 
the  light  pinky-buff  of  ceiling.  In  this  illustration  the 
place  for  a  little  gilding  is  indicated. 

What  should  be  the  colour  expression  of  the  present 


GILT  BEAD 

COVE  COL? 
DEEP  OLD  GOLD 

GILT  BEAD 
Fig,  /.-  Cornice  Tinting  suited  for  a  Drawing-room. 

day  drawing-room  ?  White  ought  to  predominate,  either 
in  mass  or  in  combination,  as  tints  with  other  colours. 
These  colours  should  be  yellow  to  add  richness  and 
brilliancy,  blue  to  relieve  and  enhance  it — ^just  as  the 
"field"  of  blue  sky  contrasts  to  the  sun.  It  may  be 
asked,  But  why  not  pink  or  green  sentiments  ?  For 
these  general  reasons — that  light,  not  heat,  should  pre- 
dominate, that  light  and  heat  together  are  inconsistent 
with  the  sentiment  of  such  a   room,  and,  further,  that 


22  House  Decoration. 

true  green  is  not  only  bilious  of  temper  but  almo8t  fatal 
to  mixed  combinations. 

Fig.  7  is  a  treatment  for  tjtie  cornice  of  room  having  a 
straw-coloured  ceiling  and  old  gold  walls  ;  the  cornice  is 
coloured  in  self -tones,  or  monotones  of  the  same  colours. 
The  blue  cove  tint,  though  appearing  blue  against  a  faint 
yellow  and  cream,  is,  when  viewed  alone,  quite  a  green 
tint.  The  very  faint  pink-red  colour  is  a  tint  of  Indian 
red.  The  creams  are  made  with  chromes  and  umber, 
and  must  be  clearly  compounded  to  be  pleasing. 

Next  consider  the  dining-room.  Its  modern  purposes 
are  chiefly  displayed  by  artificial  interior  light,  hence 
white  plays  but  a  humble  part  in  its  treatment.  Red 
tones  for  comfort  and  warmth  are  most  natural.  Ked 
also,  although  classed  as  a  stationary  colour,  is  safer  in 
practice  when  toned  down  with  black,  or  in  positions 
naturally  shaded.  Try  a  mass  of  fiery  red,  then  add  an 
equal  proportion  of  black,  and  note  the  resulting  senti- 
ment :  "  prudent  heat " — red,  shaded  with  black.  Again, 
add  white  to  red  :  result — heat  still  powerfully  dominant. 
A  dining-room  may  be  coloured  red,  of  any  intensitj', 
with  the  hall,  or  room  approach,  coloured  intense  green- 
blue.  The  result  will  then  be  that  the  red  appears  more 
intense  and  brilliant  after  looking  at  the  haU  colour. 
Harsh  or  strong  contrast  is  a  matter  irrespective  of 
harmony.  In  an  age  of  temperance  and  moderation, 
let  colour  contrasts  be  consistent,  simple,  temperate,  and 
expressive ;  not  overbearing  in  sentiment,  like  the 
ancient  Egyptian  and  Chinese  colourings,  and  sensuous, 
like  the  Pompeian. 

Halls  and  staircases  are  not  presented  to  the  eye  for 
long  periods,  hence  their  colour  expression  may  not  be 
so  arbitrarily  stated.  If  well  lighted,  we  must  restrain 
our  hand  in  the  positive  sentiments  generally  ;  but  if 
badly  lighted,  then  aim  to  give  expression  to  brilliancy 
and  cheerfulness.  When  dull  and  cheerless  weather 
predominates,  the  warm  and  cheerful  tones  are  most 
successful. 

The  study  and  library  are  open  to  much  divergence 


On  Colour  and  Paints. 


«3 


of  colour  treatment.  Either  of  the  positive  colour  sen- 
sations are  in  keeping  with  the  use  of  these  rooms  ;  but 
expediency  must  be  studied,  and  white  and  yellow  are 
"  bad,"  unless  the  natural  light  is  very  poor. 

A  pleasing  colour  and  treatment  for  painting  walls  is 
a  light  green-grey  "filling"  or  upper  portion,  and  a  terra- 

CEILINQ     AND     SMALL    BEADS' 
CREAM 


„ II      ! 

DADO        ■lii    Nil    I    I 

Yvg.  8. — Ceiling  and  Dado  Colouring-a. 

cotta  or  Indian  red  colour  for  the  dado  or  lower  portion. 
This  will  harmonise  admirably  with  light  oak  woodwork. 
"  Cream  "  for  the  filling  would  not  wear  so  well,  show- 
ing discoloration  sooner  than  the  above.  "  Light 
salmon  "  would  be  better,  but  not  so  cheerful  and  har- 
monious in  effect. 

The  cornice  in  its  entirety  should  in  all  cases  form  a 
frame  to  the  ceiling,  the  darkest  colour  to  be  at  the  base 


24 


House  Decoration. 


and  the  tones  to  lighten  towards  the  ceiling ;  bat  the 
deepest  tones  should  be  darker  than  the  general  walF- 
colour.     Fig.  8  shows  a  scheme  for  colouring. 

Do  not  fritter  time  away  in  putting  twenty  colours 
and  shades  into  one  cornice  ;  the  eye  cannot  appreciate 
it,  and  the  effect  is  lost/w  To  ordinary  view,  it  destroys 
the  breadth  of  the  cornice.  Gilding  is  properly  put  only 
on  advanced  portions,  and  should  always  be  finished  off 
with  a  coating  of  clear  size. 

A  few  lines  to  form  the  foundation  for  practice  are 


Fig-.  9. — Cornice  Colourings,  after  Owen  JoneB. 

here  quoted  from  the  late  Owen  Jones  : — "It  is  evident 
that  (in  Fig.  9)  as  the  object  must  be  to  cause  a  to  advance, 
it  is  here  we  must  put  the  yellow,  both  from  its  position 
and  from  its  form.  On  the  contrary,  we  place  blue  at  c 
as  the  retiring  colour,  and  assisting  the  concavity  of  the 
moulding.  Red,  the  most  positive  of  all  colours,  looks 
best  in  shadow— we,  therefore,  place  it  at  b.  The  fillets 
or  vertical  planes  at  d  we  make  white,  as  useful  in  sepa- 
rating the  colours  from  harsh  contrast.  The  positions  of 
the  colours  are  subject  to  modification,  according  to  cir- 
cumstance. Red  never  looks  well  when  seen  in  a  strong 
light :  it  is  too  positive  and  painful  to  the  eye ;  on  the 
contrary,  in  soffits,  in  hollows,  or  depths  of  any  kind,  it 
looks  most  brilliant.  Beyond  this,  use  a  faint  tint 
instead  of  white  for  all  but  simple  bedroom  ceiling  flats. 


On  Colour  and  Paints.  25 

Avoid  pure  or  bright  colours,  especially  when  they  con- 
trast, like  blue  and  yellow,  red  and  green.  Mix  the  tints 
to  a  colour  similar  to  the  wall  paper,  then  place  them 
somewhat  as  shown.  Avoid  much  contrast  of  tone,  but 
give  depth."  The  illustration  on  page  16  should  also  be 
examined  in  connection  with  this  illustration. 

In  painting  a  billiard-room  particularly,  the  range  of 
suitable  colour  is  governed  entirely,  and  limited  con- 
siderably, by  the  vivid  green  mass  of  cloth  covering  the 
billiard-table  and  the  accompanying  green  shades  to  the 
usual  gas-lighting  arrangement.  The  selection  of  colours 
must  not  clash  with,  or  in  the  least  detract  from,  the 
appearance  of  the  billiard-table.  The  dominant  colour- 
tone  of  a  room  is  usually  furnished  by  the  walls,  and 
being  here  the  principal  surface  the  eye  will  rest  upon 
after  leaving  the  green  table,  their  appearance  is  a  most 
important  item.  In  contrasting  any  shade  of  green 
against  a  warm  colour,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  green  containing  most  yellow  must  be  opposed  by  a 
red  having  a  blue  or  purple  tone  ;  the  true  contrast  of 
pure  red  being  a  decidedly  blue  hue  of  green. 

The  complementary  colour  of  the  bright  green  billiard - 
table-cloth  is  a  rich  purple-red,  the  tw*b  combined  giving 
a  very  brilliant  effect.  Harmony  of  colour  and  brilliancy 
of  contrast  are  not  the  principal  objects  in  this  instance  ; 
the  aim  is  rather  to  soften  down  the  vivid  green  than  to 
enhance  its  brightness,  which  would  be  done  by  any 
shade,  however  deep,  of  its  complementary  upon  the 
walls.  The  best  wall  colour  for  the  purpose  will  be  a 
dull  and  soft-toned  green,  and  by  introducing  the  warm 
complementary  colours  into  cornice  and  woodwork^ 
pleasing  and  harmonious  results  will  be  obtained. 

Notwithstanding  the  principles  of  colour-harmony 
are  as  definite  as  those  which  give  us  harmony  of 
sound,  a  knowledge  of  the  exact  equivalents  of  a  colour 
will  not  guarantee  the  successful  colour-treatment  of  a 
room  or  building.  Scientific  equations  should  form  the 
foundation  of  colour-studies ;  but  the  amount  of  success 
obtained  will  depend  upon  adapting  these  definite  laws 


26  House  Decoration. 

to  each  particular  circumstance  and  undertaking.  In 
addition  to  the  more  obvious  reasons  that  are  mentioned, 
the  climate  and  light,  the  position  and  interior  lighting 
of  the  room,  the  scenery  from  the  windows,  are  promi- 
nent factors  in  determining  the  strength  and  weakness 
of  the  contrasting  tints  which  compose  a  harmonious 
colour  scheme  ;  and  it  is  under  these  conditions  that  mere 
scientific  proportions  fail  the  decorator,  and  he  has  to 
rely  ui)on  his  own  experience  and  faculty  a?  a  colourist. 


21  """"^"^  n 


CHAPTEIl    ri 

PIGMENTS. 

[n  the  manufacture  of  pigments  there  are  two  actions, 
one  chemical  and  the  other  mechanical ;  and  there  is  a 
great  difference  between  the  two.  In  a  chemical  com- 
pound a  substance  is  produced  which  differs  from  the 
several  ingredients  of  which  it  is  composed.  A  mechani- 
cal mixture,  on  the  other  hand,  if  put  under  a  powerful 
mixiroscope,  reveals  the  fact  that  the  atoms  composing  it 
are  either  unchanged  or  have  altered  merely  in  their 
shape,  thus  reflecting  light  in  a  different  way. 

The  general  qualities  of  good  pigments  are :  beauty 
of  colour,  purity,  brightness,  and  depth  of  colour,  body, 
transparency,  ease  of  manipulation,  and  durability.  They 
should  also  keep  their  place,  and  dry  or  solidify  well. 
Body  in  opaque  pigments  is  the  quality  of  colouring  well ; 
in  transparent  colours  it  means  depth,  richness  of  colour, 
or  tinting  power.  Working  well  depends  on  either  suffi- 
cient grinding,  or  fineness  of  texture,  or  the  quality  of 
the  pigment.  Keeping  their  place  and  drying  well  depend 
upon  the  liquid  the  colours  are  mixed  with. 

Sometimes  there  is  a  combined  chemical  and  mechani- 
cal action  in  the  production  of  a  pigment.  For  instance, 
we  may  take  the  manufacture  of  vermilion — 200  parts  by 
weight  of  mercury,  and  32  parts  by  weight  of  sulphur. 
When  rubbed  together  in  a  mortar,  the  metallic  lustre  of 
the  mercury  and  the  yellow  tone  of  the  sulphur  will  dis- 
appear, and  a  grey  powder  (sulphide  of  mercury)  will  be 
the  result.  Now  put  this  grey  powder  into  a  hard  glass 
tube,  closed  at  one  end,  then  heat  the  closed  end  to  a 
high  temperature.  The  powder  will  be  converted  into  a 
vapour,  which  will  pass  up  and  be  deposited  in  the  cooler 
part  at  the  upper  end  of  the  tube.  This  operation  ia 
called  sublimation.   The  sulphide  of  mercury  thus  treated 


28  House  Decoration. 

is  said  to  be  sublimed.  Let  the  tube  be  broken,  and  the 
deposit  taken  out  and  examined.  It  will  then  be  found 
to  be  harder  and  blacker  than  the  original  grey  sulphide. 
It  also  has  a  slight  metallic  lustre.  Thus  far  it  is  chemi- 
cal action  ;  now  comes  the  mechanical  efifect.  When 
pounded  in  a  mortar  for  some  time,  the  pulverised  sub- 
stance becomes  red.  The  more  it  is  pounded  the  redder 
it  becomes,  because  its  particles  are  by  this  action  more 
divided.  Thus  we  find  that  two  elements  combined 
together  become  a  greyish-black  by  chemical  action  ; 
by  altering  its  particles  mechanically,  it  changes  to  a 
red. 

Blue  Blacky  as  its  name  suggests,  is  a  pigment  of  a  blue 
hue  of  black.  Its  source  is  a  charcoal  obtained  from  the 
vine  and  other  plants,  cork-cuttings,  and  nut-sheUs,  and 
its  blue  tone  results  from  the  thorough  burning  and 
levigation  it  goes  through,  as  well  as  being  due  to  the 
wood  used  in  the  first  instance.  It  is  very  serviceable 
as  a  water-colour  pigment,  and  is  indispensable  to  dis- 
temper work  generally,  being  used  extensively  as  a 
graining  colour.  It  produces  soft  grey  shadows  in  some 
kinds  of  light  woods ;  it  also  makes  a  fine  neutral  green 
with  yellow,  as  its  blue  tone  is  useful  for  making  low 
tones  of  green.  It  is  very  permanent,  and  acts  best  as 
a  water-colour  black.  Although  not  much  used  as  an 
oil  stainer,  it  is,  nevertheless,  useful  and  reliable  as 
such;  its  price  is  about  3d.  per  lb.  retail,  for  the 
ordinary  dry  colour,  up  to  Is.  6d.  for  the  finest  qualities, 
in  oil. 

Ivory  Black  is  at  once  the  purest  and  blackest  of  all 
black  pigments.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  suppo- 
sition that  it  is — or  was  at  one  time — produced  from 
burning  ivory.  The  ordinary  ivory  black,  however,  is 
prepared  by  charring  bones  in  closed  vessels  by  a  very 
strong  heat.  It  is  most  often  termed  "  drop  black,"  and 
this  by  reason  of  its  being  usually  sold  in  the  form  of 
drops,  or  knobs,  when  in  its  dry  state.  It  is  not  very 
successful  as  a  water-colour,  but  is  a  strong  stainer  in 
either  oil  or  water.     It  is  permanent  in  oil,  and  is  most 


Pigments.  29 

invaluable  ground  in  turpentine  for  producing  flat  or 
dead  black  paint  for  various  purposes,  and  mixes 
well  with  other  pigments.  Its  price  retail  is  from  8d. 
to  Is.  per  lb. 

Lamp  Black  is,  as  its  name  implies,  carbon  given  by 
the  soot  from  resinous  or  oily  flames,  and  is  obtained  for 
commercial  purposes  from  factories  where  the  prepara- 
tion of  turpentine  and  tar  is  carried  on.  It  is  a  good 
black,  but  not  so  intense  as  "ivory,"  being  more  of 
the  colour  of  Indian  ink.  It  is  very  useful  in  either  oil 
or  water,  and  is  quite  permanent.  It  mixes  well  with 
most  other  pigments,  but  is  spoilt  if  mixed  with  Prussian 
blue  or  Vandyke  brown.     It  does  not  dry  well. 

Black  Painty  as  usually  so  termed,  is  a  preparation 
of  common  blacks,  but  is  ground  in  linseed  oil  to  the 
form  of  a  thick  paste — very  useful  for  common  painting 

Vegetable  Black  is  an  article  similar  to  lamp  black, 
and  obtained  by  burning  vegetable  matter.  It  is  wonder- 
fully light,  and  therefore  rather  troublesome  to  mix  and 
handle. 

Besides  these  organic  or  burnt  blacks,  there  are 
occasionally  to  be  met  with  earth  blacks,  in  the  West  of 
England  and  Wales,  as  well  as  black  chalk,  in  their 
native  condition.  Generally  speaking,  they  are  not  very 
pure  in  colour,  nor  do  they  exist  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  warrant  considering  them  as  ordinary  black  pigments. 

Black  Lead  is  a  form  of  native  pigment  we  all  are 
familiar  with,  but,  notwithstanding  it  possesses  certain 
estimable  qualities  of  permanence  and  purity,  it  is 
seldom  looked  upon  as  a  painter's  pigment. 

Antwerp  Blue  is  a  preparation  very  similar  both  in 
source  and  qualities  to  Prussian  blue  ;  used  as  an  oil 
glaze,  it  is  somewhat  brighter  and  greener,  but  it  is 
neither  so  intense  nor  so  permanent  as  the  latter,  either 
in  oil  or  water. 

Cobalt  Blue  is  a  pigment  seldom  used  by  house 
painters,  owing  to  its  costliness.  It  is  second  only  to 
genuine  ultramarine  for  beauty  and  purity  of  colour, 
and  is  much  favoured  for  usingr  as  a  sky  blue,  both  in 


30  House  Decoration. 

oil  and  water  painting.  It  is  not,  however,  nearly  so 
strong  a  stainer  as  Prussian  blue,  but  is  thoroughly 
permanent  and  reliable  in  oil  and  water. 

Indiijo  Blue  is  an  ancient  pigment  of  the  nature  of  a 
dye.  obtained  from  herbaceous  plants  which  grow  in 
India  and  other  hot  countries,  and  is  usually  sold  dry  in 
the  form  of  little  knobs.  In  its  colour  qualities  and 
appearance  it  somewhat  resembles  Prussian  blue,  but  is 
very  inferior  to  that  pigment  for  oil  painting.  It  ia 
for  water-colour  purposes  that  indigo  is  valuable.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  pigments  for  distemper  tints 
that  we  have,  and  is  just  as  permanent  in  water  as  it  ia 
unreliable  in  oil— that  is,  if  good  and  pure  indigo  is 
used.  The  price,  however,  prevents  its  use  to  any  great 
extent  in  house  painting,  being  about  four  times  as 
expensive  as  French  ultramarine. 

Indigo  is  also  obtained  by  an  electrolytic  process, 
which  gives  it  in  the  purest  form  obtainable.  The  dried 
plants  are  steeped  in  water,  which  becomes  yellow  in 
colour,  and  a  current  from  copper  electrodes  is  then 
made  to  pass  through  the  liquid. 

Prussian  Blue  is  made  from  the  action  of  prussiate 
of  potash  upon  iron,  the  cyanide  of  the  potash  uniting 
with  the  iron  producing  the  blue  colour.  If  baked  it 
becomes  a  brown  ;  and  when  put  upon  a  hot  pan  and 
roasted,  if  the  hot  pellets  are  then  thrown  into  water 
and  the  colour  is  changed  to  a  brown,  this  is  through 
an  alteration  in  the  shape  of  its  particles.  It  ia  a  very 
interesting  and  curious  thing  that  the  colour  of  a  sub- 
stance can  be  thus  changed  by  mechanical  action. 

It  is  a  blue  of  much  beauty  and  strength,  not  quite 
ao  pure  as  ultramarine,  possessing  a  slight  tinge  of 
green,  which,  however,  makes  it  none  the  less  useful 
and  beautiful  for  the  painter's  use.  Some  writers 
on  the  subject  credit  Prussian  blue  with  the  property 
of  fluctuating — losing  and  gaining  colour — according 
to  the  preponderance  of  oxygen  in  the  air,  although 
under  all  ordinary  conditions  it  is  quite  reliable 
for   oil  painting.     It  gives  very  fine  tints  of  blue  ii^ 


Pigments,  3 1 

admixture  with  white  lead  ;  added  to  black  in  small 
quantities,  it  makes  that  neutral  appear  still  more  black 
and  intense;  whilst  its  brilliancy  and  transparency 
make  it  very  useful  for  glazing  over  gold  and  silver  leaf 
— a  process  so  much  used  at  the  present  time  in  de- 
corating modern  relief  wall-hangings.  Some  notion  of 
the  strength  of  Prussian  blue  as  a  staining  pigment  may 
he  gathered  from  the  fact  that  ^  oz.  ground  in  oil  would 
stain  20  lbs.  of  white  lead  paint  to  a  decided  light  blue. 
It  is  seldom  used  in  water  or  distemper  painting,  as  it 
does  not  show  the  same  qualities  of  brilliancy  and 
permanence  as  when  used  in  oil.  Its  price  is  about  that 
of  good  French  ultramarine  ;  it  is  always  sold  ground  in 
oil  or  water,  being  too  hard  for  the  worker  to  grind  or 
mix  himself  from  its  raw  state. 

Lirne  Blue,  a  cheap  poVder  of  somewhat  similar 
colour  to  ultramarine,  comes  next  in  order  of  usefulness, 
but  far  less  pure  and  strong  as  a  stainer.  As  its  name 
implies,  it  is  useful  only  for  mixing  with  water  prepara- 
tions of  chalk-lime  or  whiting  (carbonate  of  lime),  and  is 
much  used  by  the  paper-stainer  for  cheap  goods.  It  is 
practically  useless  for  oil  >paint.  A  fair  quality  should 
be  retailed  at  6d.  per  lb. 

Royal  Blue  is  a  finely-ground  cobalt :  that  is  to  say, 
it  is  ground  in  a  glass  tinted  with  cobalt,  which  is  dis- 
integrated by  plunging  it  whilst  hot  into  cold  water. 

Ultramarine  Blue  is  by  far  the  most  pure  and 
costly  of  all  pigments  in  our  use  and  knowledge,  and  has 
been  known  and  used  from  the  time  of  the  first  Pharaohs. 
Its  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  ultra,  beyond,  and 
mare^  the  sea  ;  and  by  the  ancient  Greeks  it  was  known 
as  Armenian  blue.  The  real  colour  is  made  from  a 
precious  stone,  which  is,  however,  destroyed  in  the  pro- 
cess. This  stone,  called  lapis-lazuli,  is  of  a  beautiful  azure 
colour,  marked  with  fine  golden  veins,  and  is  principally 
obtained  from  Persia  and  Siberia.  Four  qualities  of 
genuine  ultramarine  blue  are  quoted  in  colourmen's  cata- 
logues, the  prices  ranging  from  £3  3s.  to  £7  17s.  6d.  jt>«r 
ounce.    But  we  can  get  ultramaripe  at  all  manner  of 


32  House  Decoratjoiv 

prices.  Wq  can  get  manufactured  ultrt  marine  at  6d. 
per  lb. ;  lime  blue  is  the  cheapest  form.  These  com- 
mercial substitutes  for  real  ultramarine  are  more  suitable 
for  water  colour  than  oil,  as  they  rapidly  absorb  water  : 
if  used  with  oil,  they  should  be  well  dried  before  mixing. 

Factitious  Ultramarine  is,  however,  a  commodity  that 
most  painters  are  familiar  with.  It  is  prepared  artifi- 
cially in  a  great  number  of  qualities,  nnd  retailed,  con- 
sequently, at  an  equal  variety  of  prices.  It  is  always 
sold  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder,  at  prices  ranging  from 
Is.  6d.  to  3s.  6d.  per  lb.  for  house-painters'  use.  It  is 
a  most  useful  pigment,  possessing  much  purity  and 
brilliancy,  is  permanent,  and  can  be  mixed  with  either 
oil  or  distemper  paints. 

Blue  Verditer,  a  preparation  of  copper,  is  a  very  pure 
and  pretty  light  blue.  As  it  is  serviceable  only  in  water, 
and  is  not  thoroughly  permanent,  its  use  is  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  paper-stainers. 

Vandyke  Brovm  is  an  earth,  consisting  of  iron  and 
bituminous  coal.  It  is  a  deep  rich  brown,  useful  to  a 
degree  in  pictures  or  in  graining ;  with  oil  it  is  a 
bad  drier.  It  is  not  a  very  permanent  colour,  and  is 
rather  mischievous  to  the  other  colours. 

Chrome  Yellow  is  made  by  mixing  bichromate  of 
potash  with  acetate  of  lead,  or,  as  it  is  commercially 
called,  sugar-of-lead.  It  is  also  made  commercially  by 
staining  whiting  with  the  bichromate.  This  is  done 
to  give  it  a  body  ;  the  lead  is,  boiled  in  bichromate  of 
potash.  On  the  duration  of  time  of  the  boiling  depends 
whether  it  is  lemon,  deep,  or  middle  chrome.  Soda  is 
also  used  in  the  above  process  to  produce  red  chrome. 
It  is  easy  to  see  that  this  colour  should  not  be  used  with 
zinc-white.  Chrome  tints  look  very  rich  with  browns  or 
purples,  but  chrome  colours  are  fugitive. 

Yellow  and  Orange  Chromes  are  very  often  adul- 
terated. In  the  pure  state  they  consist  of  chromate  of 
lead  or  of  chromate  and  sulphate  of  lead. 

Pale  Chromes. — The  great  desideratum  is  to  obtain  a 
pale  shade  with  the  least  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  or 


Figments,  33 

what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  the  minimum  of  pale- 
ness with  the  maximum  of  staining  power.  As  the 
shade  deepens  the  strength  lessens  ;  the  orange  chromes 
often  contain  orange  lead,  which  is  very  objectionable. 

Medium  Chromes  should  give  a  clear  golden  tone  with 
white  lead,  and  not  a  buff.  A  fourth  or  third  of  zinc 
white  mixed  with  the  white  lead  holds  the  colour  better. 
The  pale  shades  ought  not  to  approach  green  ;  the  grind- 
ing should  be  very  fine,  without  any  trace  of  grit. 

Gamboge  is  a  transparent  colour,  only  useful  for 
glazing,  lacquers,  or  for  transparency  painting,  or  for 
water-colours. 

Green  pigments,  chiefly  derived  from  the  mineral 
sources  of  copper,  are  very  plentiful  and  reasonable  in 
price.  Brunswick  greens,  quaker  greens,  chrome  greens, 
etc.,  are  all  useful  pigments,  owing  their  colour  to  their 
preparation  from  the  same  mineral  sources  as  Prussian 
blue  and  chromes.  Generally,  it  may  be  granted  that 
they  are  reliable  and  fairly  permanent  for  their  cost — 
aboat  3d.  to  6d.  per  lb.  retail ;  but  the  painter  will  do 
well  to  avoid  their  use  for  tints  with  white  lead  in  good 
and  permanent  interior  work. 

Bronze,  olive,  and  invisible  greens  are,  as  their  names 
imply,  deep  but  richly-toned  pigments,  very  useful  for 
external  painting  and  very  reasonable  in  price.  They 
can  be  almost  as  easily  mixed  by  compounding  black 
and  yellow  pigments,  or  black,  blue,  and  green,  according 
to  the  particular  hue  or  cast  that  may  be  desired. 

Emerald  Green  is  made  from  arsenic.  In  oil  it  is 
peimanent ;  when  dry,  it  is  so  dusty  and  poisonous  that 
there  is  danger  in  mixing  it  with  water.  It  is  a  very 
assertive  colour,  unharmonious  and  harsh.  It  is  best  to 
make  up  green  with  yellow  and  blue  rather  than  use 
emerald  green  decoratively.  A  beautiful  neutral  green 
can  be  made  by  mixing  yellow  and  black. 

Paris  green  is  a  crystalline  colour,  and  its  richness  of 

tint  depends  upon  this.     In  grinding,  a  colour  of  very 

line  crystal  must  be  selected.    To  test  this  colour  for 

purity,  dissolve  out  the  oil  by  means  of  benzine,  and  dry 

c 


34  House  Decorat[on. 

the  residue,  then  treat  it  with  strong  ammonia  ;  it  pure, 
it  will  entirely  dissolve. 

Verdigris  is  a  transparent  green,  and,  like  the  last 
colour,  is  a  copper  compound  entirely  soluble  in  ammonia. 

Madder  Ijake  from  the  plant  is  the  most  permanent 
of  the  lake  colours.  That  made  from  the  cochineal 
insects  with  salts  of  tin  is  not  so  permanent.  The 
Venetians  used  to  lay  on  their  lakes  without  admixture 
over  the  plaster  of  Paris  ground  spoken  of  on  p.  40,  and 
even  then  locked  in  the  colour  by  a  rim  of  varnish,  to 
protect  it  from  the  contamination  of  any  other  colour. 
The  old  Persians  would  take  a  rug,  dip  it  in  a  preparation 
of  madder  and  milk,  and  then  lay  it  in  the  hot  sunshine, 
thus  fixing  it,  and  giving  it  a  beautiful  colour.  It  is  the 
modern  dyer  who  takes  the  insect  cochineal,  and  re- 
ducing tin  with  an  acid  produces  a  red  exceedingly 
brilliant,  but  not  so  beautiful  as  the  old  Persian  red. 
Madder  lake  is  more  permanent.  This  cochineal  colour 
does  not  harmonise  so  readily  with  other  colours,  and 
is  not  so  lasting  as  madder. 

Ochres. — For  all  purposes  of  house  painting,  the 
yellow  ochres  are  the  most  useful.  They  are  an  earth, 
and  owe  their  colour  to  hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  and  vary 
in  tint  according  to  the  amount  of  the  latter  present ; 
they  are,  in  fact,  clays  coloured  by  hydrated  oxide  of 
iron,  and  therefore  contain  silicate  of  alumina  and  silica. 
Ochres  are  found  in  a  native  state  in  most  countries,  and 
plentifully  in  our  own,  the  best  coming  from  Oxford- 
shire and  Derbyshire. 

The  tone  of  ochre  ranges  from  pale  yellow  to  brown, 
and  there  are  several  shades  of  red,  as  well  as  some 
other  tones,  produced  by  burning. 

From  the  earliest  days  of  history,  ochres  have  been 
known  and  used,  being  of  good  body,  and  very  reliable, 
if  suitably  prepared,  for  both  oil  and  water  painting. 
The  variety  of  tone  and  shade  in  which  they  are  to  be 
found  is  endless,  and  to  the  action  of  iron  is  due  the 
colour  of  them  all.  As  all  varieties  of  ochre  can  be  pro- 
duced artificially  and  cheaply  from  iron,  and  aioce  all 


Pigments.  35 

native  pigments  require  grinding  and  washing  before  being 
fit  for  painting,  it  need  scarcely  be  added  that  the  bulk  of 
such  yellow  pigments  used  are  of  the  manufactured  kind. 
For  making  with  white  the  very  serviceable  straw, 
stone,  and  buff  tints  for  large  plain  surfaces,  and  the 
grounds  for  graining  the  ochres  are  quite  indispensable. 
Ochre  is  too  cheap  for  adulteration,  but  it  varies  in 
staining  power  and  in  its  tone.  It  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  bad  oil,  and  in  other  cases  is  not  sufficiently 
washed.  It  is  a  permanent  colour,  and  harmless  to  the 
other  colours.     In  oil  it  requires  driers.    . 

The  value  of  an  ochre  does  not  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  oxide  of  iron  present,  but  upon  the  purity  of 
the  tint.  Good  ochre  is  invariably  a  mixture  of  ochre 
and  chrome  yellow. 

The  French  ochres,  which  are  the  finest,  are  regarded 
as  standards  of  quality. 

Purj^le-Browni  is  itself  an  oxide  of  iron.  Iron  is 
treated  with  lime  and  acid  to  produce  it.  It  is  very 
permanent  in  itself,  but  weakens  tints  with  which  it  is 
mixed,  not  because  it  chemically  destroys  the  other 
colours,  but  because  it  retains  its  own  strength,  whilst 
the  others  fade.  As  its  name  implies,  it  is  the  lowest  in 
the  scale  of  brightness,  being,  in  fact,  a  dense  brown.  It 
is  most  in  demand  for  external  painting,  when  it  forms 
the  basis  of  most  so-called  chocolate  hues.  Although 
not  being  useful  for  admixture  with  white — muddiness 
resulting — it  presents  in  mass  a  comfortable-looking 
appearance,  used  alone,  in  oil  or  water  processes. 

Red  Lead  is  a  preparation  of  burnt  massicol  (an  oxide 
of  lead),  of  a  bright  scarlet  colour.  Although,  if  used  by 
itself  in  oil  or  varnish,  it  will  retain  its  brightness  for 
some  time,  it  is  useless  for  nnxing  tints,  and  is  destruc- 
tive to  other  colours  when  mixed  with  them.  It  is 
altogether  useless,  too,  with  water,  which  turns  it  black.^ 
It  is,  however,  well  adapted  for  priming,  or  first  coat, 
either  alone  or  mixed  with  white  lead,  and  is  a  great 
preservative  to  wood  and  iron.  Being  a  good  drier  it 
is  used  for  hardening  white  lead,  wheu  mixed  as  a  putty 


36  House  Decoration. 

or  as  paint  for  preservative  purposes.  Red  lead  is  au 
important  pigment,  and  as  a  paint  is  the  best  preserva- 
tive that  can  be  used.  It  should  never  be  mixed  with 
whiting  or  similar  bodies,  but  oxide  of  iron  may  be  used 
in  conjunction  with  it  to  advantage. 

Red  Ochres  comprise  the  most  valuable,  and  also  the 
cheapest,  red  pigments  in  general  use  ;  the  best  of  these, 
for  house-painting  purposes,  being  Venetian  and  Indian 
reds  and  purple-brown. 

All  these  reds  having,  if  properly  mixed  and  used, 
sufficient  covering  power  to  hide,  in  one  coat,  almost 
any  other  coloured  surface,  they  are,  therefore,  very 
useful  and  economical  for  preservative  and  plain  paint- 
ing in  such  a  climate  as  our  own.  Although  existing  in 
a  native  condition,  these  commercial  reds  are  usually 
manufactured  pigments — viz.,  burnt  ochres.  They  are 
sold  in  powder  form,  but  Venetian  red  and  purple-broAvn 
are  generally  to  be  had  ready  ground  in  linseed  oil. 
Vermilion  and  Indian  red,  from  the  reason  of  their 
more  heavy  nature,  would  soon  become  solidly  caked, 
and,  therefore,  are  only  ground  in  oil  or  turpentine  when 
so  ordered.  Of  course,  this  does  not  apply  to  colours  in 
collapsible  tubes.  Venetian  red,  Indian  red,  Turkey  red, 
rose-pink,  and  red  oxide  owe  their  colour  almost  entirely 
to  oxide  of  iron. 

Indian  Red,  originallj"  coming  from  Bengal,  is  a  rich 
deep  red,  of  slightly  purple  tone,  with  all  the  good 
qualities  of  body  and  permanence  of  its  preceding  pig- 
ment. Of  late  years,  the  supply  of  that  brilliant  and 
rosy-toned  pigment  which  we  originally  knew  as  Indian 
red  appears  to  have  been  exhausted,  its  place  now  being 
taken — or,  rather,  its  name  usurped — by  the  comparatively 
dull  and  muddy  reds  of  artificial  source.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  good  variety  obtained  from  the  Forest  of  Dean  ; 
it  is  a  beautiful  colour  in  itself,  and  is  a  splendid  stain er. 
It  has  a  purple  hue,  and  is  very  permanent  and  satis 
factory. 

Indian  reds  cannot  be  classed  as  pure  if  they  contain 
less  than  96  per  cent,  of  oxide ;  the  paler-the  colour,  the 


PlGMEJVTS.  37 

greater  is  its  tinting  strength,  and  rosier  the  tint ;  the 
deep-coloured  give  purplish  tints. 

Turkey  red  is  essentially  a  mixture  of  Indian  red 
with  a  lake  colour  or  with  rose-pink.  The  object  to  be 
sought  for  in  Turkey  red  is  its  brilliancy,  and  next  its 
opacity,  or  body.    It  should  also  be  very  finely  ground. 

Venetian  Red  is  a  natural  red  ochre,  with  more  iron 
in  it  than  the  other  ochres  ;  it  consists  usually  of  oxide 
of  iron  and  sulphate  of  lime.  Its  comparative  brightness 
must  be  examined,  and  also  fineness  of  grinding.  It  is 
of  good  body,  makes  clean  tints  with  white  in  both  oil 
and  water,  and  is  sufficiently  cheap  for  any  purpose.  It 
is  permanent;  but  there  is  an  imitation,  made  from 
vitriol,  which  is  not  so  permanent,  and  is  altogether 
unsatisfactory. 

Vermilion  is  a  mineral  sulphide  of  mercury,  pre- 
eminent for  its  brilliancy  and  purity  of  red,  and  is  one 
^  the  pigments  known  and  used  by  the  ancients. 
Although  it  may  be  found  in  a  native  state,  principally 
in  China  and  California  (requiring  grinding,  however, 
before  being  fit  for  use),  the  vermilion  of  commerce  is 
principally  an  article  manufactured  from  mercury.  It 
is  a  crystalline  pigment.  The  larger  the  crystal,  the 
deeper  the  tint,  therefore  the  paler  shades  have  most 
body.  Sulphide  of  mercury  is  found  in  the  earth.  It 
formerly  came  from  China ;  and  Chinese  vermilion  has 
the  reputation  of  being  the  best,  although  the  English 
manufactured  article  nearly,  but  not  quite,  reaches  it. 
The  natural  sulphide  is  called,  commercially,  cinnabar. 

The  quality  of  it  varies  very  much.  It  presents  s 
splendid  field  for  the  enterprising  adulterator..  To  find 
out  if  it  is  pure,  put  a  portion  on  a  hot  metal  plate,  and 
hold  it  over  a  flame.  If  genuine,  it  will  practically  dis- 
appear when  sufficiently  heated ;  the  extent  of  the 
adulteration  will  be  apparent  by  the  amount  which 
remains.  It  is  seldom  in  much  request  for  house 
painting  in  ity  full  strength,  being  too  vivid  for  the 
light,  climate,  and  social  sentiments  of  this  country ; 
and  being  also  very  heavy,  and  ranging  from  3s.  6d.  to 


38  House  Decoration. 

5s.  6d.  per  lb.  retail,  it  is  too  costly  for  large  surfaces. 
Vermilion  is,  however,  very  useful  for  obtaining,  with 
white,  pure  and  clean  pink,  and  similar  delicate  tints, 
which  are  permanent  \  if  required  in  its  full  brilliancy, 
vermilion  stands  best  with,  and  applied  in,  good  oil 
varnish  alone.  Imitation  vermilions  are  made  from 
orange  lead  coloured  with  eosin.  Crimson  tones  are 
obtained  by  admixture  with  white  lead,  zinc- white,  sul- 
phate of  lead,  etc.  Cheap  colours  are  made  from  red 
lead  and  barytes. 

Siennas  are  in  their  nature  much  the  same  as  ochres, 
but  contain  more  iron  in  their  composition.  They 
possess  in  a  high  degree  the  nature  of  getting  brighter 
and  yellower  by  age  and  exposure.  They  have  a  greater 
staining  power  than  ochre,  and  are  slow  in  drying. 

Burnt  Sienna.  Although  coming  more  under  tha 
heading  of  red  pigments,  by  reason  of  its  bright,  ii 
impure,  orange-red,  this  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  burnt 
preparation  of  the  mother  pigment.  By  the  latter  pro- 
cess it  gains  also  in  transparency  and  staining  power, 
and  it  is  really  indispensable  when  graining  some 
kinds  of  wood.  It  is  obtained  by  baking  the  raw  sienna 
till  it  becomes  a  rich  orange-brown,  with  great  trans- 
parency and  depth  of  colour.  It  has  all  the  excellent 
qualities  of  ochre  and  raw  sienna,  with  this  addition  : 
that  it  dries  a  little  quicker. 

Terra  di  Sienna,  or  Raw  Sienna,  is  a  very  useful  pig- 
ment. Although  not  so  clean  and  bright  in  yellow  as 
good  ochre,  it  has  more  staining  power  when  used  with 
white,  with  which  it  forms  very  soft  and  agreeable  cream 
tints  and  the  so-called  "  ivory  whites,"  so  much  in  de- 
mand of  late  years.  It  is  obtainable  ready  ground  both 
in  oil  or  in  water,  is  equally  serviceable  in  either  car>e,  and 
is  reasonable  in  price.  For  the  imitation  of  maple, 
satinwood,  pitch  pine,  etc.,  it  is  very  popular  and  useful, 
prepared  in  water,  whilst  its  semi-transparent  nature 
renders  it  valuable  where  transparent  effects  are  desired 
in  oil  painting  processes. 

Terra  Vert  is  a  silicate  earth,  permanent  and  slightlj 


Pigments.  39 

transparent  either  in  oil  or  water.  It  is  used  extensively 
for  the  peculiar  tone  of  flesh  needed  in  painting  figures, 
because  of  its  neutral  tone. 

The  Umhers  contain  iron  and  manganese  ;  they  are 
useful  colours,  containing  all  the  virtues  and  all  the 
usefulness  possible.  The  most  common  is  usually 
termed  raw  umber — a  natural  ochre,  found  almost  all 
over  the  world.  The  best  is  Turkey  umber,  and  this, 
after  burning,  which  makes  it  richer  and  warmer — 
when  it  is  known  as  burnt  umber — is  one  of  the  most 
useful  pigments.  For  graining  it  is  almost  indis- 
pensable, and  for  all  general  purposes  of  painters'  and 
paper-stainers'  work  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
aids  to  soft  and  modest  colouring,  both  in  oil  and  water 
processes,  we  possess.  Its  price  varies,  according  to 
quality  and  preparation,  from  ^d.  to  Is.  per  pound. 

Whiting  is  carbonate  of  lime  ;  it  should  be  used  only 
with  the  earth  pigments,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  destroy 
vegetable  colours.  Prussian  blue,  Brunswick  and  the 
cochineal  lakes,  and  most  of  the  yellows  are  of  little 
use  when  mixed  with  whiting.  Ochres,  umbers,  siennas, 
blue-black,  Venetian  and  Indian  red,  vermilion,  madder, 
and  most  of  the  blues,  are  useful  with  whiting.  It  is  the 
pigment  which  is  used  for  wall  papers,  so  that  there  should 
not  be  any  difficulty  in  getting  an  extensive  range  of 
colours  to  go  with  it,  as  we  know  the  number  of  tones 
used  in  wall  papers  is  unlimited. 

White  '  lead — white  oxide  of  lead — is  mixed  with 
almost  all  other  colours,  sometimes  to  their  detriment. 
It  is  very  durable,  and  is,  in  consequence,  a  good  pre- 
servative ;  it  is  the  strongest  of  all  whites  in  opacity 
or  covering  power.  When  genuine,  and  properly  pre- 
pared for  use,  it  is  a  very  reliable  agent  in  obtaining 
a  successfully  painted  surface — viz.,  a  compact  and 
pleasing  incrustation  —  which,  under  fair  conditions, 
maintains  its  colour  and  is  impervious  to  water  for 
a  great  number  of  years.  Now  for  its  disadvantages. 
It  is  highly  poisonous,  but  the  poison  is  very  eccen- 
tric in  its  effect.     The  health  of  some  people  is  not 


40  House  Decoration. 

at  all  injured  by  its  use,  whilst  that  of  others  i§ 
affected  by  the  slightest  contact  with  it.  Food  should 
not  be  eaten  in  the  presence  of  lead,  especially  when  it 
is  in  the  process  of  evaporation.  An  instance  has 
occurred  where  a  whole  family  have  been  poisoned  by 
drinking  water  drawn  from  a  tank  that  had  received 
several  coats  of  white  lead  paint.  Acid  drinks  and 
milk  are  good  antidotes.  When  using  lead,  painters 
should  take  as  much  oil  before  going  to  bed  at  night 
as  they  can  digest — a  teaspoonful  or  less.  Of  course, 
the  utmost  cleanliness  is  very  necessary.  The  acid  of 
fruit  helps  to  check  the  deleterious  action  of  lead. 
An  acid  drink  is  an  excellent  antidote.  Citric  acid 
or  acetic  acid  in  water,  or  drink  made  from  lemons, 
are  very  good.  It  is  the  acid  principle  rather  than 
the  particular  acid. 

Then  as  to  its  effect  on  colour :  it  is  so  deleterious 
that  for  grounds  the  great  Venetian  painters  never  used 
it.  The  Venetian  painters  prepared  a  ground  of  plaster 
of  Paris.  We  may  be  certain  that  if  we  start  with 
white  lead— a  mineral — and  put  any  vegetable  colour 
with  it,  we  shall  find  the  mineral  kill  the  vegetable. 
The  safest  way  to  use  colours  so  that  they  are  not 
destroyed  is  to  use  only  mineral  with  mineral  colours, 
and  only  vegetable  with  vegetable  colours.  White 
lead  is  not  suitable  for  water  colour,  as  it  goes  black 
when  used  without  oil.  Age  gives  white  lead  a  yellow 
tinge,  and  damp  will  turn  it  black.  If  coated  over  dark 
colours,  it  will  sink  into  them,  and  the  darker  colour 
will  show  through.  There  are  instances  of  this  in  old 
pictures.  Raphael,  after  painting  a  red  cap  on  a  figure 
in  one  of  his  pictures,  desired  to  do  without  the  cap,  and 
so  painted  it  out  with  a  colour  whose  principal  part 
consisted  of  lead.  After  a  time  the  cap  came  through, 
and  now  shows  ;  of  course,  not  so  bright  as  it  originally 
was,  but  like  the  ghost  of  the  cap. 

The  ordinary  process  of  obtaining  white  lead  is  by  the 
slow  corrosion  of  small  castings  of  metallic  lead,  caused 
by  its  exposure  ovei  acid  in  small  earthenware  vessels. 


Pigments.  41 

This  la  known  as  the  Dutch  method,  and  it  requires  at 
least  ninety  days  for  the  corrosion,  which,  of  course, 
adds  to  the  price  to  no  small  extent,  especially  as  con- 
siderable time  is  required,  in  addition,  for  the  lead 
to  mature.  During  the  past  few  years,  however, 
there  have  been  patented  from  time  to  time  a  number 
of  new  processes,  most  of  them  having  for  their  imme- 
diate object  the  saving  of  time  in  manufacture.  A 
successful  American  invention  has  been  introduced  into 
this  country,  by  the  processes  of  which  the  dressed  ore 
is  volatilised  by  heat,  the  resulting  fumes  are  carried 
forward  by  air  currents,  and  ultimately  solidified,  instead 
of  escaping  into  the  atmosphere  ;  the  end  of  which  is 
that,  after  necessary  refining  purposes  are  completed, 
there  remains  a  fine,  sublimated  white  lead,  which  has 
been  obtained  without  the  escape  of  any  poisonous  fumes 
and  presented  fit  for  practical  use  without  any  particular 
danger  to  the  health  of  those  engaged  in  its  manufacture. 
One  of  the  results  of  using  white  lead  that  is  too  fresh 
is  "  chalking " — i.e.,  powdering  of  the  lead  under  the 
action  of  atmosphere.  Of  the  new  processes  of  corrosion 
that  have  been  successful,  the  most  interesting  is  probably 
that  in  which  the  metallic  lead  is  reduced  to  particles 
as  fine  as  powder,  and  then  subjected  to  the  action  of 
acid,  which  reduces  it  in  a  short  time  to  hydro-carbonate 
of  lead. 

The  manufacture  is,  of  course,  attended  with  con- 
siderable danger  to  the  operatives,  the  degree  of  which 
certainly  depends  somewhat  upon  woikshop  sanitation, 
medical  precautions,  and  on  individual  constitutions, 
but  which,  in  any  case,  is  sufficiently  serious  to  render  it 
most  urgent  that  a  substitute  be  found.  There  are 
authenticated  instances  of  reckless  employes  reaching  an 
average  old  age,  whilst  more  careful  livers  sufi"er  in  all 
stages — from  ordinary  sickness  and  debility  up  to  partial 
paralysis  or  the  torture  of  death  by  gradual  yet  virulent 
poisoning. 

The  baneful  results  of  lead  poisoning  are  not  peculiar 
to  the  people  actually  employed  in  white  lead   faciorieb, 


42  HousR  Decoration, 

but  will  be  found  also  to  a  very  large  extent  among 
paint-grinders  and  painters  generally.  Men  have  become 
conJBrmed  invalids  and  cripples  through  the  effects  of  lead 
in  their  systems  ;  strong,  healthy  young  men  have  been 
attacked,  and  incapacitated  from  work  for  as  long  as 
fourteen  and  fifteen  weeks  at  a  time,  through  the  effects 
of  what  is  known  in  the  trade  as  lead  colic. 

The  question  of  an  efficient  substitute  for  white  lead 
is,  therefore,  one  of  literally  vital  importance.  It  has 
been  frequently  asserted  that  there  is  no  substitute  for 
it ;  that  a  pigment  cannot  be  made  that  will  answer 
the  purpose,  having  all  the  advantages  claimed  for  the 
carbonate  of  lead.  Certainly,  sulphate  of  lead  has  not 
the  body  or  covering  properties  that  carbonate  of  lead 
has  ;  but  there  are  other  white  pigments.  For  instance, 
oxide  of  zinc  can  claim  to  be  one  of  the  best  white  paints 
in  the  market,  and  it  has  certainly  a  decided  advantage 
over  white  lead,  inasmuch  as  it  is  not  the  least  injurious 
to  health,  and  retains  its  colour  under  all  atmospheric 
conditions.  But  there,  again,  body  is  wanting.  But  it 
would  be  far  preferable  to  use  an  article  that  we  know 
has  no  pernicious  effects  than  one  we  know  is  most  deadly. 
There  is  also  another  pigment — sulphide  of  zinc — which 
has  a  greater  advantage  still ;  while  being  cheaper  than 
oxide  of  zinc,  it  has  a  much  better  body  and  as  great  a 
covering  power  as  carbonate  of  lead.  It  was  first  intro- 
duced by  the  Silicate  Paint  Company,  of  Charlton,  in 
Kent,  some  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  ago,  and  their  sales 
are  said  to  have  steadily  increased,  until  they  now  reach 
several  thousand  tons  annually,  notwithstanding  that 
there  are  other  firms  manufacturing  a  somewhat  similar 
article. 

Mr.  Laurie's  paper  on  White  Lead  Substitutes,  read 
before  the  Society  of  Arts  in  January,  1894,  states  that, 
so  far  as  the  author  knows,  sulphate  of  lead  and  oxide  of 
lead  are  the  only  efficient  substitutes  available.  Zinc 
oxide  is  in  very  general  use  in  Japan  and  in  France. 
Its  merit  is  greatest  in  point  of  long-retained  whiteness, 
and  its  defect  in  covering  power.     Zinc  oxide  is  known 


Pigments.  43 

commercially  as  "  zinc  white,"  lead  salphate  as  *'  Glasgow 
sulphate  "  and  "  Freeman's  white."  When  zinc  oxide  is 
ground  up  with  lead  sulphate  under  heavy  edge  runners, 
the  covering  power  of  the  compound  is  considerably 
greater  than  that  of  either  component  if  applied  sepa- 
rately. Laboratory  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Laurie 
show  that  the  quantity  wanted  for  three  successive  coats 
is  about  equal  when  either  the  mixture  named,  or  Free- 
man's white,  or  white  lead  is  used :  sublimed  oxide  of 
dnc  requires  rather  more.  The  relative  quantities  of  oil 
required  are  about  the  same.  The  colour  value  is  dis- 
tinctly greater  in  the  case  of  the  substitutes  ;  whilst 
there  can  be  only  one  opinion  respecting  the  value  of 
this  freedom  from  the  dangers  peculiar  to  white  lead  :  it 
is  open  to  question  whether  this  is  an  altogether  desir- 
able quality.  Probably  few  persons  outside  the  trade 
are  aware  that  by  use  of  white  lead  paint  they  have 
in  their  houses  a  sensitive  detector  of  poisonous  sewer 
gas — a  sanitary  quality  of  which  most  of  the  "  sanitary 
enamels"  that  are  now  the  rage  are,  by  reason  of  the 
entire  absence  of  lead  in  their  composition,  almost  or 
entirely  destitute.  In  practical  house  painting,  zinc- 
white  is  often  used  in  obtaining  the  finest  white  surfaces 
for  enamelling  and  hand  polishing  of  wood-work.  Since 
this  class  of  work  is  of  a  very  laborious  and  expensive 
nature,  it  naturally  follows  that  a  -pigment  should  be  used 
which  maintains  its  colour  for  a  great  number  of  years. 

In  Charlton  White  we  possess  a  zinc  white  which  has 
the  body  of  white  lead  without  its  drawbacks.  It  has 
also  its  covering  power.  Although  it  works  a  little  drier 
than  does  white  lead,  yet  it  makes  purer  decorative  tints, 
and  is  not  discoloured  by  suphuretted  hydrogen  present 
in  foul  air.  It  is  a  fine  colour  for  inside  work,  and  is  not 
poisonous.  Although  this  article  is  scarcely  likely,  to 
supersede  white  lead  for  general  purposes,  it  is  rapidly 
getting  a  wider  reputation.  Its  elementary  sources  are 
said  to  be  barytes,  strontium,  and  zinc  ;  its  market  value 
is  about  the  same  as  the  best  white  lead.  Till  a  method 
was  found  out  to  give  a  body  to  zinc  white  during  the 


44  Bouse  Uecoration. 

process  of  manufacture,  it  was  only  used  to  finish  work 
with,  aa  it  was  formerly  so  transparent  in  its  nature, 
though  always  a  better  white  than  white  lead.  Zinc 
white  and  white  lead  jpaints  mixed  together  will  not 
agree,  but  will  destroy  any  painting.  Work  is  sometimes 
got  up  in  white  lead  and  finished  with  zinc  white,  and 
they  will  work  well  this  way  ;  but  the  two  are  never 
mixed  in  one  coat  of  colour. 

Flake  White,  Nottingham  White,  Silver  White,  etc., 
are  all  preparations  of  metallic  lead,  differing  in  process 
of  manufacture  and  minor  resultant  qualities,  but  are  not 
necessary  here  to  be  further  considered. 

The  ordinary  white  lead  for  painting  is  obtained, 
ground  to  the  form  of  a  thick  paste,  in  linseed  oil,  the 
heaviest  and  whitest  being  the  best.  It  is,  as  a  commer- 
cial article,  extensively  adulterated  with  sulphate  of 
baryta,  whiting,  etc.  ;  and  it  follows,  therefore,  that  the 
surest  way  of  obtaining  it  genuine  is  by  purchase  from  a 
vendor  or  firm  of  reliable  reputation,  and  to  be  willing  to 
pay  a  fair  price,  according  to  the  fluctuations  of  the  market 

Zinc  White. — Oxide  of  zinc  is  a  very  useful  pigment, 
being  permanent  in  both  oil  and  water.  To  no  extent, 
however,  does  it  rival,  for  general  use,  the  oxides  of  lead, 
since  it  is  vastly  inferior  in  body — covering  power — to 
genuine  white  lead.  Its  principal  merit  is  found  in  the 
fact  of  its  being  entirely  free  from  the  dangerous  attri- 
butes, both  during  preparation  and  use,  which  attend 
the  handling  of  white  lead. 

The  subject  of  colour  testing  is  one  that  might  profit- 
ably be  studied  by  all  painters,  paint -makers,  and 
merchants. 

The  following  scheme  is  one  given  by  A.  Wilson  in  a 
paper  read  before  the  Association  of  Master  Painters  and 
Decorators  : — 

Colours  are  examined  for  (1)  purity  of  material ; 
(2)  purity  of  tone,  brilliancy,  or  richness ;  (3)  fineness  of 
grinding ;  (4)  spreading  capacity  or  covering  power  ; 
(5)  body,  or  power  to  conceal  the  substance  which  it 
coats;    (6)  staining  p-ower,   or  tinting   strength,   when 


Figments.  45 

mixed  with  white  or  other  colours ;  (7)  quality  01 
purity  of  tint  with  white;  (8)  if  a  paste  colour,  the 
consistency  of  the  paste ;  (9)  transparency  of  transparent 
colours. 

Pigments  are  very  frequently  adulterated,  calcium 
sulphate  or  gypsum  and  silica  being  often  used ;  for 
instance,  gypsum  in  Venetian  red  and  silica  in  ochre. 
White  clay,  or  kaolin,  is  also  very  frequently  used,  but 
clay  occurs  naturally  in  such  pigments  as  ochre,  sienna, 
amber,  Vandyke  brown,  and  earths  generally.  Carbonate 
of  lime  or  chalk  is  also  used  as  an  adulterant.  It  occurs 
naturally  in  some  pigments,  but  only  in  very  small  quan- 
tities. It  is  often  mixed  with  white  lead.  In  some 
colours,  such  as  rose-pink,  chalk  is  used  as  a  vehicle  for 
carrying  the  colour,  and  its  use  in  these  is  therefore  ad- 
missible. Barytes,  when  mixed  with  oil,  is  devoid  of 
opacity  and  covering  power  ;  when  mixed  with  pigments 
that  are  specifically  lighter,  it  will  separate  after  paint- 
ing into  two  layers,  the  barytes  being  in  the  lower. 
Whiting  and  gypsum  are  better  oil  absorbents  than 
barytes.  Oxide  of  zinc,  owing  to  its  certainty  to  chip 
off,  will  never  replace  white  lead,  but  it  may  be  used 
as  a  finishing  coat  to  the  latter. 

Green  Pigments. — The  green  most  used  is  that  known 
as  chrome  green.  It  consists  of  a  mixture  of  Prussian 
blue  and  chrome  yellow,  and  is  often  prepared  by  pre- 
cipitation of  the  two  substances  simultaneously  from 
solution.  The  commercial  chrome  greens  consist  usually 
of  about  one  part  colour  and  three  parts  mineral  white 
(generally  barytes).  They  may  conveniently  be  divided 
into  two  classes — those  inclining  to  yellow  and  those 
inclining  to  blue  in  tint. 

For  testing  these  pigments,  three  standards,  in  three 
different  shades  of  perfectly  pure  greens,  are  used.  By 
mixing  two  of  these  standard  greens,  any  desired  tint 
may  be  obtained. 

If  it  were  desired  to  test  an  oxide  paint,  the  most 
practical  way  would  be  an  examination  as  to  colour  and 
degree  of  fineness  in  grinding.    This  refers  to  the  oxide 


45  House  Decoration. 

in  paste  form,  and  not  diluted  with  oils  for  use,  as  in  the 
latter  case  the  oil  would  be  a  factor  of  importance, 
whether  good  "honest  linseed"  or  "fishy"  oil,  in  the  two- 
fold sense.  Oxide  paint  is  so  cheap,  there  is  no  need  to 
adulterate  it,  although  there  are  several  qualities  of 
colour  (brightness)  and  fineness.  In  actual  use  the  oil 
is  more  the  preservative  than  the  oxide,  which  is  rather 
a  chf.ap  body  pigment  with  affinity  for  iron-work. 

To  tell  whether  any  sample  of  paint  is  lead  or  zinc, 
put  it  into  the  flame  of  a  gas-burner.  If  it  is  lead,  it  will 
turn  brown  by  the  action  of  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
of  the  gas  ;  if  it  is  zinc,  it  will  keep  white,  and  be 
unaffected. 

Barytes,  chalk,  china,  clay,  and  gypsum  are  the  sub- 
stances used  to  adulterate  white  lead.  There  are  also 
samples  of  lead  which  are  imperfectly  made,  and  either 
badly  washed  or  not  ground  sufficiently  to  be  perfect. 

To  find  out  what  substance  any  sample  of  lead  is 
adulterated  with  would  necessitate  the  use  of  a  chemical 
laboratory,  but  a  few  simple  tests  may  be  of  use  to  enable 
anyone  to  tell  pure  white  lead. 

White  lead  should  not  incline  to  pink  or  grey,  nor  be 
gritty.  These  are  evidences  of  faults  in  the  manufacture. 
There  are  some  people  who  hold  that  barytes  improves 
lead;  but  it  is  a  question  whether  it  is  so  or  no.  A  good 
way  to  test  as  to  adulteration  is  to  rub  a  portion  of  lead 
in  a  little  sulphuric  acid  on  a  piece  of  glass  with  a  bone 
palette-knife  ;  if  it  is  free  from  adulteration,  and  a  good 
lead,  it  will  mix  to  a  smooth  paste.  For  a  very  strong 
and  absolute  test,  take  a  piece  of  white  lead,  mix  it  up 
to  the  consistency  of  flatting  with  turps,  let  it  stand  till 
the  lead  settles,  then  pour  off  the  turps,  and  add  some 
benzine  to  it ;  then  stir  it  well  and  shake  it  up,  and  let 
it  settle  again  till  next  day.  Then  pour  off  the  benzine, 
and  place  the  white  lead  upon  a  piece  of  blotting-paper ; 
you  will  then  have  your  sample  in  a  state  of  dry  white 
lead.  Dissolve  this  in  a  little  dilute  nitric  acid.  If  any 
sediment  at  all  remains  theu,  this  will  be  the  aubstaoce 
used  for  adulteratioa. 


47 


CHAPTER  HL 

OILS,    DRIERS,   VAUNISHEP,    ETC. 

We  will  now  briefly  occupy  ourselves  with  those  fluids 
which  are  indispensable  to  the  worker  for  compounding 
with  pigments  mixed  in  paint. 

Oils  are  usually  divided  into  two  classes,  and  are 
termed  fixed  oils  and  volatile  oils.  Fixed  oils  are  further 
distinguished,  by  their  nature  and  source,  into  fat  oils  and 
drying  oils.  Fat  oils  are  those  which  contain  an  excess 
of  oleic  acid,  or  stearine,  as  the  animal  and  fish  oils,  and 
these  are  consequently  non-drying  oils.  Drying  oils  are 
those  which  harden  into  a  solid  form  :  as,  for  instance, 
linseed,  poppy,  and  nut  oils 

Good  and  reliable  fluids  are  as  necessary  in  the  mix- 
ing of  paint  as  are  good  pigments.  Linseed  oil*  occupies 
a  position  amongst  oils  similar  to  that  taken  by  genuine 
white  lead  amongst  the  solids ;  and  just  as  white  lead 
forms  the  basis  in  nearly  all  light  colour  paints,  so 
linseed  is  the  principal  solvent  in  the  preparation  of 
varnishes  and  other  vehicles. 

The  source  and  appearance  of  linseed  oil  are  familiar 
to  most  people ;  but  its  qualities  and  properties,  from 
a  painter's  point  of  view,  are  matters  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  here.  Drying  oils,  and  linseed  oil  particularly, 
amongst  that  class,  owe  the  characteristic  of  drying  to 
their  excess  of  resinous  properties,  and  therefore,  when 
used  under  the  influence  of  oxygen,  they  dry  or  harden 
into  a  film  of  horny  substance. 

Linseed  oil,  then,  is  the  most  useful  of  all  oils  for  the 
painter,  but  it  turns  to  a  yellow-brown  colour  rapidly, 
and  darkens  by  age.  To  help  to  prevent  this,  turpentine 
is  mixed  with  the  colour,  and  it  is  best  to  use  the  oil 
gparingiy  when  mixing  paint,  for  the  reason  that  ia 


48  House  Decoration. 

drying  it  darkens  the  lead.  Colour  and  smell  are  the 
tests  for  good  oil  (some  painters  even  taste  it).  A  good 
way  is  to  compare  the  odour  with  that  of  crushed  linseed 
meal.  By  mentioning  that  animal  oils  are  turned  brown 
by  chlorine  and  that  vegetable  oUs  remain  colourless,  a 
test  is  revealed  for  any  oils  whose  nature  is  unascer- 
tained. 

The  few  of  the  imperfections  common  to  good  linseed 
oil  do  not  materially  affect  the  work  of  the  house- painter. 
But  it  should  be  of  good  quality.  It  should  always 
be  transparent,  free  from  any  rancid  smell  or  taste, 
and  of  a  light  yellow  or  amber  colour.  A  well-stocked 
market  of  linseed  supplies  our  wants  at  a  very  reasonable 
price,  and  there  is  little  occasion  for  using  any  of  the 
other  expressed  oils. 

Boiled  Oil — that  is,  boiled  linseed  oil — is  a  very  ser- 
viceable preparation  which  must  be  noticed.  Boiled  oil 
is  the  ultimate  product  of  the  raw  linseed  oil  boiled  with 
litharge,  or  some  similar  matter.  By  this  process  the 
oxidising  or  drying  qualities  of  the  litharge  are  commu- 
nicated to  the  oil,  which  furthermore  gains  body  and 
brilliancy.  The  boiling  of  linseed  oil  causes  it  to  become 
much  darker,  and  hence  it  is  seldom  used  for  light 
colours,  and  but  rarely  for  interior  painting.  For  pre- 
servative work,  boiled  oil  is  almost  indispensable,  and 
especially  with  dark  pigments  ;  its  colour  is  then  no 
disadvantage,  whilst  its  extra  body  and  hardening 
qualities  are  a  decided  gaia  In  the  process  of  manu- 
facturing boiled  oil,  raw  linseed  oil  is  brought  up  to  the 
boiling  point,  a  little  manganese  being  steeped  in  it 
daring  the  boiling ;  it  thus  becomes  the  boiled  oil  of 
commerce.  Badly-boiled  oil  has  the  fault  of  ropiness. 
It  should  be  nearly  as  limpid  as  raw  oil,  and  should,  i\ 
spread  on  a  piece  of  glass,  either  dry  or  rapidly  have  a 
skin  over  it. 

Gilders'  Fat  Oil  is  linseed  oil  in  another  condition, 
and  is  the  chief  factor  used  in  making  gilders'  and 
decorators'  oil  gold  size.  It  may  be  prepared  by  keeping 
raw  oil  in  a  closed  vessel  for  a  considerable  length  of 


OiLs^  Driers^    Varnishes^  etc,  49 

time,  by  which  it  acquires  a  special  brilliancy  and  drying 
quality  ;  then  it  is  prepared  as  oil  gold  size  with  certain 
pigments.  Good  fat  oil  for  gilding  has  been  made  by 
keeping  the  accumulated  skins  and  scrapings  of  gold 
size  in  a  clay  jar,  and  then  adding  sufficient  best  raw  oil 
to  cover  them.  Being  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  but 
protected  from  rain,  etc.,  for  about  a  year,  with  occasional 
stirring,  the  oil,  by  the  oxidising  action  of  the  old  size- 
skins  and  the  exposure  to  air,  has  been  converted  into 
good  fat  oil.  Doubtless,  there  are  more  expeditious 
ways  of  artificially  preparing  it,  but  the  above  gives  a 
fairly  quick  and  reliable  result. 

Like  linseed  oil,  turpentine  is  largely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  varnishes  and  other  painters'  vehicles. 

Oil  of  Turpentine,  commonly  called  turps  and  some- 
times, but  incorrectly,  termed  spirit  of  turpentine,  has  a 
colourless  appearance  and  strong  pungent  odour,  as  well  as 
an  inflammable  nature,  doubtless  familiar  to  most  readers. 
Turpentine  contains  a  slight  proportion  of  resin  and  other 
matter  which  will  not  evaporate  by  exposure  or  heat : 
which  fact  demonstrates  the  fallacy  of  calling  it  a  spirit ; 
but  its  volatile  nature  makes  it  invaluable  to  the  painter 
for  thinning  the  drying  oils  and  for  making  "  flatting  " 
paint.  Since  oil  of  turpentine  contains  but  a  small  pro- 
portion of  the  resinous  properties  common  to  the  ex- 
pressed oils,  it  follows  that  its  binding  quality  is  very 
poor ;  and  paint  compounded  with  turps  alone  can  be 
rubbed  away  by  friction. 

There  are  several  methods  of  testing  turpentine,  and 
the  points  upon  which  it  is  possible  to  tell  its  purity 
are  : — (1)  The  specific  gravity  ;  (2)  the  boiling-point ; 
(3)  the  action  upon  polarised  light;  (4)  the  absence  of 
fluorescence  ;  (5)  the  residue  on  evaporation.  Turpen- 
tine is  sometimes  adulterated  by  the  addition  of  paraffin 
oil. 

Varnishing  is  the  last  process  of  house-painting,  and 
consists  in  covering  the  pigments  with  a  film  of  a  trans- 
parent resinous  nature,  which  not  only  preserves  the 
paint  from  the  ill  effects  of  the  atmosphere  and  handling, 


5©  House  Decoration. 

but  brings  out  the  colour  of  the  pigment  to  its  fullest 
extent.  "Where  paint  is  prepared  with  an  excess  of  raw 
linseed  or  boiled  oil,  varnishing  is  not  necessary,  since 
thfe  oil  itself  encases  and  protects  the  particles  of  the 
pigment  or  solid  used,  and  by  its  smoothness  and  body 
maintains  a  good  gloss.  With  better-class  work,  and 
graining  and  marbling,  a  protective  body  of  oil  varnish 
is  desirable,  but  experience  and  knowledge  are  necessary 
to  discriminate  between  the  varied  kinds  that  are  made. 

As  varnishes  come  to  the  painter,  it  is  quite  impossible 
that  he  should  know  the  composition  of  the  material  he 
is  using  ;  only  the  reputation  of  the  maker  can  be  his 
guide,  as  the  varnishes  that  are  made  owe  their  excellence 
to  the  exactness  and  perfection  of  their  manufacture. 

The  skill  needed  in  their  manufacture  is  often 
acquired  by  a  generation  of  careful  experiment  and 
practice.  Although  the  best  of  varnishes  are  made 
from  gums,  yet  the  excellence  of  the  varnish  is  a  great 
deal  due  to  the  process  of  manufacture ;  and  although 
varnish  is  made  by  melting  the  gum  in  raw  linseed  oil, 
yet  to  put  oil  to  varnish  once  made  would  destroy  its 
drying  power.  In  a  case  where  a  painter  put  oil  into 
the  varnish  for  a  dado  of  many  yards'  extent  to  make 
his  work  less  hard,  the  result  was  that  nothing  would 
make  it  dry  ;  it  had  to  be  washed  off. 

Varnishes  may  be  considered  in  three  classes  :  as  ex- 
pressed oil  varnishes,  volatile  oil  varnishes,  and  spirit 
varnishes;  and  from  these  terms  some  notion  of  the 
solvents  or  liquids  they  are  compounded  from  is 
gathered.  It  is  customary  to  further  distinguish  them 
by  the  substance  or  resin  they  contain,  such  as  copal 
varnish  and  mastic  varnish,  and  again  by  the'r  probable 
use,  as  oak  varnish  and  maple  varnish. 

For  whatever  purpose  varnish  is  required,  it  is  most 
unwise  for  a  novice  to  attempt  to  prepare  it  himself. 
When  a  painter's  apprentice  was  necessarily  initiated 
into  the  making  of  boiled  oil,  japanners'  gold  size, 
etc.,  the  price  of  varnish  was  high  and  excused  the 
experiment ;  but   nowadays  the  attempt  can  only  b^ 


Oils,  Driers,   Varnishes,  etc.  51 

considered,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  as  a  danger- 
ous waste  of  time  and  material.  Keen  competition  has 
reduced  varnish  making  to  a  matter  of  fair  profits,  and 
briefly  considering  here  the  substances  from  which 
they  are  compounded  will  tend  to  the  better  and  more 
intelligent  use  of  the  varnishes. 

The  most  serviceable  varnishes  for  use  in  connec- 
tion with  painting  belong  to  oil  varnishes,  and  these 
are  usually  copal — the  name  given  to  the  gum  prin- 
cipally used  in  their  manufacture.  Copal  gum  m 
appearance  somewhat  resembles  amber,  and  it  is  im- 
ported from  the  tropics.  When  varnish  makers  purchase 
a  parcel  of  gums,  the  pieces  are  very  carefully  assorted 
into  various  degrees  of  lightness  and  transparency.  The 
whitest  variety  of  the  gum  is  usually  the  scarcest ;  and 
as  it  follows  that  the  colour  of  the  copal  must  exercise  a 
considerable  influence  over  that  of  the  ultimate  product, 
white  copal  varnish  is  consequently  found  a  most  expen- 
sive preparation. 

Generally,  in  the  manufacture  of  copal  varnishes,  the 
gum  is  first  dissolved  by  heat  and  then  converted  by 
turpentine  ir^to  the  liquid  form,  with  the  addition  of 
linseed  oil,  to  give  the  copal  elasticity.  The  colour  of 
the  oil  used  is,  therefore,  a  further  important  factor. 
Colourless  varnish,  such  as  that  known  as  mastic,  can  be 
made  by  simply  dissolving  picked  gum  mastic  in  oil  of 
turpentine  ;  but  since  the  absence  of  linseed  oil  causes  the 
liquid  to  set  and  harden  very  rapidly,  such  a  preparation 
would  be  practically  useless  for  the  house-painter,  besides 
lacking  in  that  elasticity  and  body  which  it  is  the  special 
property  of  linseed  oil  to  contribute. 

For  the  house-painter's  finest  interior  work,  white  oil 
varnish — that  is,  a  liquid  which  can  be  spread  and  worked 
upon  broad  surfaces,  and  such  as  will  dry  in  about  eight 
hours — is  very  requisite.  Various  eminent  firms  make 
such  a  varnish  for  decorators  and  painters,  and  sell  it 
under  fanciful  names.  The  chief  attributes  aimed  at  are 
freedom  from  yellowness  and  the  possession  of  good 
^' hand- polishing"  qualities.     The  price  of  such  a  white 


52  House  Dec(o ration. 

interior  varnish  would  be  from  20s.  to  30s.  per  gallon  to 
the  trade. 

In  addition  to  this  polishing  varnish,  a  maker's  list 
usually  contains  one  or  two  varieties  of  what  are  termed 
superfine  copal  varnishes.  These  range  in  price  from 
16s.  to  20s.  per  gallon,  possessing  different  names  and 
features,  such  as  "  polishing  "  and  "  extra  hard-drying." 

Lower  down  in  the  scale  of  costliness  will  be  found 
the  best  kinds  of  ordinary  copal  varnish.  Many  varieties 
are  made  of  this  quality,  and  for  such  purposes  as  the 
names  inside  copal  and  outside  copal  suggest  to  the  pur- 
chasers. The  prices  of  these  range  from  12s.  to  16s.  per 
gallon. 

The  varnishes  usually  termed  cheap  oaks  in  the 
trade  are  generally  of  a  most  serviceable  class,  and  can 
be  purchased,  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  interior  and 
external  surfaces,  at  from  8s.  to  12s.  per  gallon. 

Quality  is  the  essential  consideration  in  a  varnish. 
The  prices  given  above  are  more  for  relative  comparison 
than  as  any  guide  to  purchasers  :  but  they  are  well  repre- 
sentative of  the  best  makers'  current  prices. 

Preparations  of  coarse  oil  and  common  resins  are 
placed  upon  the  market  at  much  lower  prices  ;  but  the 
inexperienced  especially  should  always  purchase  an 
established  maker's  goods  through  a  reliable  retailer. 

There  are  yet  a  few  other  varieties  to  mention ;  and 
of  these,  a  good  friend  is  hard  drying  or  church  oak 
varnish,  although  in  copal  oak  varnish  quickness  of 
hardening  must  generally  be  accompanied  by  a  tendency 
to  lose  gloss  and  to  crack,  from  excess  of  resin.  A  pre- 
paration known  under  the  above  names  is  always  to  be 
had  for  seats  of  public  buildings,  stained  floors,  and 
common  furniture,  for  which  it  is  most  valuable.  This 
make  of  varnish,  retailed  at  about  16s.  per  gallon,  is  also 
used  for  kitchen  furniture  ;  since,  unlike  many  and  even 
expensive  painters'  varnishes,  it  does  not  get  soft  and 
sticky  by  the  warmth  of  the  body,  whilst  its  oily  nature 
makes  it  very  durable.  The  litharge  or  similar  substance 
with  which  it  is  prepared,  however,  considerably  darkens 


Oils,  Driers,   Varnishes,  etc.  53 

the  oil,  so  that  this  would  not  do  for  light- coloured 
paint. 

Maple  Varnish  is  but  another  name  for  a  good  quality 
of  interior  copal  varnish,  made  from  the  palest  gums 
and  refined  oil,  so  that  when  coated  over  such  delicate 
figure  as  the  imitation  of  maple  and  satin-wood,  it 
shall  not  disadvantageously  affect  the  colour  of  the 
grainer's  work  beneath. 

The  varnishing  of  wall  papers  is  an  important  item 
of  painters'  work,  and  covering  the  walls  of  middle-class 
houses  with  pattern  papers  suitable  for  varnishing  on 
staircase,  bath-room,  and  kitchen  walls  especially,  is  a 
commendable  and  growing  practice,  consistent  alike  with 
sanitation,  durability,  and  decorative  effect.  •  For  use  on 
all  paper  hangings  on  which  the  yellowness  of  copal 
varnish  would  not  be  detrimental  to  the  colour  of  the 
design,  a  good  quality  of  this  variety  is  far  preferable  to 
the  paper  varnishes  sold  by  the  manufacturing  houses. 
Whether  used  upon  walls  or  wood-work,  the  colour  of 
copal  oak  varnish  would  spoil  such  tints  as  French  or 
green-greys,  delicate  pinks  or  white  ;  but  for  "  terra- 
cotta" shades,  buffs,  leather,  or  cinnamon  colours,  the 
yellowness  would  be  no  disadvantage. 

Where  white  paper  varnish  is  necessary,  that  which  is 
termed  crystal  paper  or  fine  pale  paper  varnish  is  used. 
The  first  is  the  whitest ;  and  as  it  can  contain  but  little 
linseed  oil,  it  requires  very  expeditious  and  experienced 
working  when  used  over  large  surfaces.  Crystal  paper, 
copal  cabinet,  and  quick  furniture  varnishes  come  under 
the  heading  of  volatile  oil  varnishes ;  so  does  mastic 
varnish,  used  for  varnishing  papers,  maps,  etc.  Genuine 
mastic  varnish  costs  about  50s.  per  gallon,  but  the  cheap 
substitutes  given  above  range  from  14s. to  20s.,  trade  price. 

White  hard  and  brown  hard  spirit  varnish  are  the 
two  most  useful  amongst  the  purely  sjnrit  varnishes. 
They  are  similar,  in  nature  to  French  polish,  all  being 
prepared  from  various  kinds  of  lac — shel-lac,  etc. — and 
spirits  of  wine,  or  methylated  spirit.  The  lustre  they 
give  is  nearer  to  that  of  French  polish,  and  "softer" 


54  House  Decoration. 

than  that  given  by  a  copal  oil :  hence  white  hard 
and  brown  hard  are  much  used  for  furniture  as  a 
substitute  for  the  more  tedious  process  of  French  polish- 
ing, and  also  upon  those  portions  where  the  polisher's 
rubber  could  not  be  used  ;  they  cost  about  8s.  per  gallon. 

Bath  Varnish  is  a  very  hard-drying  white  liquid, 
similar  in  nature  to  the  "  enamels  "  now  on  the  market, 
but  is  a  more  durable  article,  and  resists  the  action  of 
hot  water  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  other  preparations. 
Its  price  is  about  20s.  per  gallon. 

There  are  a  few  vehicles  and  liquids  used  by 
painters  which  scarcely  come  under  the  heading  of  oils 
and  varnishes.  The  word  varnish  is  so  associated  with 
a  glossy  surface,  that  the  name  flatting  or  lustreless 
varnish,  given  to  a  preparation  of  oil  of  turpentine, 
copal,  and  wax,  is  somewhat  a  misnomer.  This  is  not 
often  called  for,  since  it  possesses  very  little  body ;  but 
upon  timbered  and  ornamental  wooden  ceilings  it  can 
be  used  with  decided  advantage  over  ordinary  copal,  the 
small  amount  of  wax  gloss  it  gives  out  being  far  more 
restful  and  natural  for  such  positions  than  a  bright  hard 
glitter. 

Black  Ja-pan  is  a  species  of  black  copal  varnish,  made 
in  various  qualities,  and  the  best  being  that  for  carriage 
painting.  House-painters  seldom  use  it  for  other  than 
blacking  grates  or  iron-work,  although  there  are  many 
other  purposes  for  which  it  can  be  used.  Thinned  down 
with  turps,  it  makes  a  capital  stain  of  a  rich  brown 
colour  for  wood. 

Berlin  Black  is  another  preparation  useful  for 
various  purposes,  as  it  is  a  dense  black,  drying  with  only 
an  egg-shell  gloss ;  like  Brunswick  black,  it  is  prepared 
chiefly  for  iron- work.  Cheaper  black  varnishes,  similar 
in  nature  to  Brunswick,  are  also  to  be  purchased  at 
4s.  per  gallon.  , 

Varnish  Stains  are  liquids  of  similar  nature  and  pre- 
paration to  brown  hard  spirit  varnish,  but  are  coloured 
with  permanent  vegetable  dyes,  to  represent,  when  spread 
on  clean  white  wood,  the  various  colours  of  oak,  walnut, 


Oils,  Driers,    Varnishes,  etc.  55 

mahogany,  etc.  When  applied  without  any  previous 
preparation,  two  coats  are  necessary  to  get  a  glossy  effect 
upon  new  wood.  As  a  varnish  and  stain  combined,  they 
are  most  useful  and  convenient  for  picture-frames,  fret- 
work, and  other  little  matters. 

Patent  Knotting,  or  Knotting  Composition,  is  a  brown 
spirituous  varnish,  used  chiefly  for  touching  over  the 
knots  in  wood-work  previous  to  the  priming,  or  first 
coating,  with  paint.  It  is  also  useful  for  coating  over 
stains  and  other  effects  of  dampness  on  walls  previous  to 
painting  them. 

Japan,  or  Japanners'  Gold  Size  is  a  liquid  used  for  a 
variety  of  p-urposes.  Japan  gold  size  is  a  preparation  of 
linseed  oil  and  litharge,  and  will  usually  dry  in  about 
half  an  hour.  Although  the  name  appears  to  connect 
it  with  processes  of  gilding,  it  is  seldom  used  for  that 
purpose,  but  rather  as  a  liquid  driers  in  combination 
with  turps  and  flatting  paint.  When  nearly  dry,  it 
has  to  a  slight  degree  that  property  of  tackiness  which 
is  so  characteristic  of  oil  gold  size,  but  with  very  little 
of  the  brilliancy  of  the  latter.  Only  oe  out-door  work, 
where  it  is  advisable  to  ^  complete  the  gilding  forthwith, 
for  temporary  work,  or  for  sign  writing,  can  it  be  recom- 
mended as  a  gold  size. 

Compositions  prepared  with  japan  gold  size  for 
hardening  them  are  much  used  in  coach  painting,  engine 
work,  and,  to  a  minor  extent,  in  house  painting  and 
"  filling  up  "  ;  and  in  preparing  "  dead  "  black  from  Ivory 
Black  ground  in  turpentine,  this  is  also  the  best  and 
safest  binding  liquid. 

A  few  words  must  now  be  said  about  driers,  as  they  y 
are  very  important.  Many  people  use  them  too  freely, 
to  the  detriment  of  the  paints.  Of  these  substances 
there  is  a  considerable  variety,  which  may  be  used  to 
more  or  less  advantage,  according  to  their  chemical 
nature  and  their  effect  upon  the  colour  of  paint. 

Red  Lead  is  a  good  natural  drier,  but  this  would  not 
do  for  assisting  the  white  paint  to  oxidise.  The  princi- 
pal drying  materials  for  all  liquids  and  paints  are  sugar 


56  House  Decoration, 

of  lead,  sulphate  of  zinc,  litharge  or  oxide  of  lead,  white 
copperas,  white  sulphate  of  manganese,  and  white  borate 
of  manganese,  of  which  the  two  last  are  the  most  ex- 
pensive, o  Nowadays,  it  is  not  necessary  to  rub  up  our 
own  litharge  or  sugar  of  lead,  for  they  are  offered  to 
us  in  the  less  pure,  perhaps,  but  far  more  convenient 
form  of  liquid  driers  and  patent  driers  respectively. 

Don't  use  driers  which  form  a  dark  matter  on  the 
top  in  the  keg,  or  such  as  have  a  brittle  skin — for  they 
dry  too  hard — or  such  as  turn  a  livid  white  under  water. 
Don't  use  driers  which  have  a  body  or  are  of  a  dark 
colour.  In  former  days,  sugar  of  lead  was  ground  for 
driers.  In  every  painter's  shop  was  a  large  muller  and 
stone  slab,  upon  which  all  the  colours  were  ground 
(there  were  no  tube  colours  then),  and  a  stock  job  con- 
sisted in  grinding  sugar  of  lead,  that  and  litharge  being 
the  general  driers.  Longer  time  was  then  allowed  for 
paint  to  dry,  and  driers  were  used  sparingly. 

Liquid  driers,  such  as  terebine,  are  composed  of  oils 
or  spirits  which  have  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  a 
siccative  or  drying  material.  This  action  of  drying  is  an 
instance  of  a  quick  way  of  bringing  about  what  nature 
accomplishes  in  a  longer  time.  Instead  of  losing  a  por- 
tion of  their  bulk,  as  is  the  case  with  water  colours,  oil 
colours,  in  drying,  take  up  oxygen  from  the  air  :  a  pro- 
cess which  chemistry  shows  is  constantly  going  on  with 
nearly  everything  on  the  earth's  surface.  It  is  easily 
seen  that  the  slow  drying  of  nature  is  the  best,  and  that 
excess  of  driers  will  harden  the  surface  of  the  colour  too 
quickly,  and  cause  the  outer  surface  to  contract  and 
become  smaller  than  the  under  surface.  The  tension 
between  them  causes  cracking.  It  is  purposely  done  to 
produce  jfancy  cracking  in  pottery  work.  The  glaze  and 
colour  are  so  made  that  the  glaze  contracts  quicker  than 
the  colour  in  the  cooling ;  and  the  result  is  cracks  all 
over  the  ware,  Such  substances  as  Japanese  gold  size 
or  varnish  will  make  the  paint  brittle  and  produce  the 
same  effect.  Drying  oil  or  sugar  of  lead  is  the  best  to 
use.    Good  terebine  also  ia  a  safe  drier. 


OiLSi  Driers,    Varnishes^  etc.  57 

Every  colour  and  varnish  manufacturer  now  makes  a 
terebine  or  liquid  drier,  and  its  drying  strength  is  usually 
that  of  1  oz.  to  the  lb.  of  paint,  under  favourable  condi- 
tions. Terebine  combines  far  more  satisfactorily  with 
linseed  oil  for  drying  than  does  Japan  gold  size  :  a  similar 
mixture.  "The  latter  is  most  useful  in  compounding 
flatting  and  quick-drying  paints  for  varnishing  up(in. 

A  sample  of  terebine,  purchased  at  a  paint-shop  and 
afterwards  tested,  was  found  to  contain  75  per  cent,  of 
turps  and  25  per  cent,  of  a  residue  consisting  almost 
entirely  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  but  containing  also  a  little 
common  resin — added,  no  doubt,  as  an  adulterant.  The 
boiled  oil  it  contained  was  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  and 
had  been  boiled  with  oxide  of  lead  (litharge),  in  order  to 
render  it  quicker  as  a  drying  agent.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  terebine  may  be  made  by  mixing  together  25  per 
cent,  of  boiled  linseed  oil  (treated  with  litharge)  and 
75  per  cent,  of  turpentine  :  in  other  words,  f  lb.  of  turps 
and  i  lb.  of  oil ;  but  each  maker  may  have  a  different 
formula. 

Another  recipe  for  making  this  useful  material  for 
painters  is  as  follows  : — Take  2  lbs.  ground  litharge,  2  lbs. 
red  lead,  1  lb.  sulphate  of  manganese,  \  lb.  sugar  of  lead  ; 
put  all  these  into  a  pot,  and  mix  with  them  four  or  five 
gills  of  pale  Japan  gold  size,  until  the  lot  can  be  easily 
stirred.  Then  add  about  \  gal.  of  American  turpentine. 
Kow  leave  the  whole  to  stand,  with  occasional  stirring, 
for  a  few  days  (not  less  than  three),  and  its  materials  will 
act  without  heat.  After  the  expiration  of  a  few  days, 
the  clear  resultant  liquid — terebine — may  be  taken  off, 
and  more  "  turps  "  put  on  the  materials,  for  the  second 
and  third  time,  with  equally  satisfactory  results.  Half 
proportions  of  these  component  articles  may  be  used 
with  equally  good  results. 

Many  samples  of  paraffin  give  what  is  called  a  fluo- 
rescence— that  is,  though  the  oil  is  apparently  colourless, 
if  you  hold  some  in  a  test-tube  against  a  black  back- 
ground (a  coat-sleeve),  and  allow  the  light  to  be  reflected 
from  it,  you  will  find  that  it  has  a  fine  delicate  blue 


/ 


58  House  Decoration. 

colour  or  bloom.  Now,  pure  turpentine  does  not  show 
a  fluorescence,  and  by  trial  it  has  been  found  that  10  per 
cent,  of  paraffin  oil  added  gave  a  slight  fluorescence  on 
the  surface  of  the  mixture.  The  only  point  against  this 
test  is  that  some  samples  of  paraffin  oil  do  not  give  a 
fluorescence,  but  there  are  not  many  of  them  ;  resin  oil, 
the  chief  adulterant  for  turpentine,  is  also  fluorescent, 
and  has  to  be  detected  by  its  high  gravity.  If  there  is 
a  smell  of  paraffin  oil  and  fluorescence,  it  is  certain  there 
is  paraffin  present. 

One  of  the  simplest  tests  is  to  put  a  few  drops  of  the 
turpentine  on  a  sheet  of  white  writing-paper.  If  the 
turpentine  is  pure,  it  will  evaporate  in  a  few  minutes, 
leaving  the  paper  quite  clean  ;  while  if  it  be  adulterated 
with  paraffin  oil  (petroleum),  it  will  leave  a  greasy  mark. 
If  the  adulterant  used  is  benzine,  the  greasy  mark  will 
not  be  so  apparent,  and  will  fade  away  in  the  course  of 
about  five  minutes.  Another  good  test  for  the  practical 
f»ainter  is  to  shake  up  the  turpentine  in  a  small  bottle. 
It  is  well  to  obtain  a  sample  of  turpentine  of  undoubted 
purity,  and  place  this  into  a  small  bottle.  Shake  up  the 
sample,  and  note  the  result ;  then  immediately  shake  up 
the  suspected  turpentine,  comparing  the  two.  The 
bubbles  in  turpentine  adulterated  with  petroleum  will 
hold  longer  than  those  in  pure  material,  and  a  blue  cast 
will  be  observable  if  the  bottle  be  held  in  a  strong  light. 
It  should  be  added  that  old  turpentine  that  has  become 
gummy,  even  if  pure,  will  leave  a  greasy  mark  on  white 
paper,  which  might  be  taken  to  indicate  the  presence  of 
petroleum  in  the  test  above  mentioned.  As,  however, 
gum  in  turpentine  is  just  as  objectionable  as  the  presence 
of  paraffin  oil,  this  fact  does  not  interfere  with  the  use- 
fulness of  the  leot. 


59 


CHAPTER    IV. 

TOOLS     USED    BY    PAINTERS. 


The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  describe  the  particular 
kinds  of  tools  and  requisites  with  which  the  painter  has 
to  work,  and  to  further  afford  some  measure  of  advice 
for  the  guidance  of  purchasers.  As  brushes  are  the  chief 
tools  in  a  painter's  outfit,  they  will  be  dealt  with  first. 

The  best  bristles  used  in  making  painters'  brushes 
are  imported  from  Russia.  The  hairs  of  the  hog  and 
wild  boar  are  noted  for  their  strength  and  size.  They 
grow  to  some  nine  inches  long.  St.  Petersburg,  Kam- 
schatka,  and  the  wilds  of  Siberia  annually  contribute 
a  large  proportion  of  the  immense  quantity  used  for 
brush  making.  A  goodly  number  of  their  bristles  are 
shed  or  rubbed  off  by  the  hogs  during  the  summer-time, 
and  when  collected  into  a  sufficiently  large  bundle,  these 
are  sent  by  the  peasantry  jfrom  all  parts  of  the  country 
to  trade  centres.  France  and  Belgium  also  contribute  a 
small  proportion  of  bristles  to  the  market,  and  Germany 
not  only  sends  us  the  hair,  but  a  great  quantity  of  cheap 
and  rubbishy  vegetable  fibre  brushes  also ;  for  the  supply 
of  the  best  and  most  serviceable  bristles  and  brushes 
scarcely  keeps  pace  with  the  growing  demands  and  re- 
quirements of  the  painting  aaid  decorative  trades,  and 
hence  a  market  is  found  here  for  the  less  serviceable  but 
more  showy-looking  brushes  which  flood  the  trade. 

The  value  of  hogs'  bristles  naturally  depends  upon 
their  suitability  for  brush  making — their  length,  strength, 
elasticity,  and  also  colour.  White  brushes  are  commonly 
preferred,  not  only  by  house-painters,  but  also  in  all 
descriptions  of  brushes,  probably  under  the  impression 
that  adulteration  is  less  prevalent  than  with  grey-  or 
black-haired  brushes.  Bristles  are  bought  by  weight; 
and  the  cauae  for  the  vast  difference  in  the  price  and 


6o  House  Decoration. 

quality  between  two  ordinary-looking  paint-brushes  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  price  of  genuine 
bristles  ranges  from  about  £10  to  nearly  £50  per 
hundredweight. 

The  adulteration  of  brushes  is  carried  on  to  a  vast 
extent,  and  principally  by  the  aid  of  American  fibre  and 
horsehair.  So  well  are  these  adulterants  manipulated  and 
mixed  with  the  bristles,  that  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
discover  them.  Horsehair  is  more  difficult  to  detect  by 
examination,  since  the  difference  between  that  and  poor 
bristles  is  but  in  the  quality  of  elasticity.  When  fibre  is 
mixed  with  the  hair,  a  loss  of  "  spring "  in  the  brush  is 


Fig.  10. — Ordinary  Honse  Painter's  Brush. 

noticeable,  as  is  also  the  appearance  of  the  fibre — it  is 
neither  so  smooth  or  finished-looking  as  hair.  The  differ- 
ence observable  in  burning  a  vegetable  fibre,  which  will 
leave  a  grey  ash,  and  the  peculiar  smell  attending  the 
burning  of  hair  or  bristle,  quickly  decides  which  is  under 
examination.  But  burning  is  no  test  between  bristle 
and  horsehair — here  experience  alone  can  decide. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  have  been  selected 
chiefly  to  show  the  peculiarities  of  each  class  or  make  of 
brush,  without  consideration  of  the  exact  size  or  scale. 
They  include  examples  of  most  descriptions  of  brushes 
in  ordinary  use  for  painting  and  varnishing;  and 
with  all  these  the  painter  should  be  familiar.  Fig.  10 
will  convey  a  fair  idea  of  the  appearance  of  an  ordinary 
good  paint-brush  of  the  usual  form.  The  bristles  are 
about  6  in.  long  from  the  binding  to  the  point,  and 
each  brush  requires  to  be  bridled— that  is,  tied  up  with 
"sSing  some  2  or  3  in.  higher — before  it  is  used  for  paint- 
ing. As  the  brush  wears  down,  the  string  binding  is 
untied,  until  eventually  the  extra  bridle  is  entirely  dis- 
pensed with.    Fig.  11   is  a  similar  brush,  but  oval  in 


Tools   Used  by  Painters. 


6i 


shape.  Fig.  12  represents  a  shape  in  which  quantities  of 
cheap  brushes  are  made.  These  three  kinds  of  brushes 
are  usually  sold  in  four  qualities  of  bristle  :  "  Lily," 
"  Yellow  Middle,"  "  Grey,"  and  "  Black,"  of  which  the 
first  and  whitest  is  the  best  and  most  expensive.  Good 
hair  makes  a  good  brush,  made  up  in  either  shape,  but 


Fig.  11,— House  Painter's  ordinary  Oval  Brush. 


Fig.  12.— Cheap  Style  of  Brush,  with  Copper  Binding. 


Fig.  15. — Cerman  Paint  Tool. 

the  first  shape  is  mostly  used  at  the  first-rate  decorators' 
shops. 

Fig.  13  shows  a  small  round-handle  brush,  called  an 
English  paint  tool,  the  shape  of  which  is  never  altered  ; 
the  small  sizes  are  called  "  sash  tools  " — that  is,  for  paint- 
ing the  small  bars  of  a  window-sash.  They  all  require 
tying  up  short  for  using  in  oil  paint.  -  The  German 
paint  tool  (Fig.  15),  both  for  wear  and  quality,  compares 
very  unfavourably ;  and  although  it  can  be  bought  for 
half  t^p  price  of  a  good  English  tool,  it  is  dear  at  that 


62 


House  Decoration. 


to  a  worker.     An  assortment  of  sash  tools  are  illustrated 
in  Figs.  13  to  18. 

Fig.  19  represents  a  brush  of  recent  date,  made  pur- 


Fig-.  16.— Long  Haired  Sash  Tool. 


Fig.  17.— Quilled  Sash  Tool. 


JFijT.  18.— Sash  Tool  for  General  Use. 


Fig.  20. — Hog-hair  Fitch  in  round  Tin. 


Fig.  21.— Hog-hair  in  flat  Tin. 


Fig.  22.— Hog-hair  flat  Tool. 

posely  for  sash-painting  ;  it  is  an  assistance  to  quick  and 
clean  work,  where  a  great  number  of  window-panes  have 
to  be  painted,  but  for  ordinary  work  the  string-tied  sasl; 


I'ooLS   Used  by  Painters. 


63 


tool  will  suffice.  Figs.  20  and  21  are  termed  "  fitches," 
consisting  of  short  bristles  bound  in  tin,  with  long 
wood  handles.  They  are  much  used  for  all  kinds  of 
decorating  and  gilding  ;  and  nearly  all  painters,  artistic 
and  otherwise,  find  them  indispensable.  Fig.  23  is  a 
somewhat  similar  brush,  useful  to  gilders,  scene-painters, 
etc.,  as  well  as  to  decorators. 

Painters'  varnish- brushes  are  usually  old  and  well-  / 


Fig.  24. — Oval  Bevelled  Varnish  Brush. 


Fig.  26. — Varnishing  Fitch. 

tried  tools  that  have  been  worn -in  with  painting,  and 
these,  if  properly  cleaned  and  looked  after,  cannot  be 
improved  upon  for  professional  use.  Figs.  24,  25,  and  26 
represent  brushes  specially  made  for  varnishing ;  the 
first,  shown  edgewise,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  made  to 
the  shape  of  a  partly-worn  paint-brush.  Fig.  25  is  a 
shape  occasionally  used  by  the  operative  house  painter  ; 
certainly  not  by  reason  of  its  suitability.  This  and  Fig. 
26  can  be  used  to  advantage  only  on  the  finest  work,  and 
on  broad  flat  surfaces. 


64 


House  Decoration. 


Clean  and  good  work  cannot  be  done  without  dusting- 
brushes.  Fig.  27  shows  the  best  shape,  the  pointed 
handle  is  useful  to  remove  dirt  from  corners.  Somewhat 
similar  in  shape  to  Fig.  10,  on  p.  60,  it  is  rather  larger, 
and  the  bristles  are  much  longer  and  spreading,  so  that 
dust  and  dirt  can  be  brushed  out  of  any  crevice  and 
corner  with  ease.    Brushes  like  Fig.  12,  made  only  for 


Fia:.  28.— Stencil  Tool. 


Hoff-hair  Lining:  Fitch, 


painting,  are  sometimes  used  for  dusting,  and  when  by 
such  unfair  usage  the  hairs  come  out,  the  maker  is  often 
blamed  without  reason. 

Fig.  28,  a  stencil-brush,  and  Figs.  29  and  30,  fitches,  are 
brushes  more  used  by  decorators  than  by  painters.  The 
former  is  for  stencilling,  and  the  latter  for  running  lines 
with  the  aid  of  a  bevelled  straight-edge.  The  prices  of 
these,  like  all  brushes,  depend  upon  the  size. 

Fig.  31  shows  a  section  of  the  straight-edge  used  to 
guide  a  lining  fitch,    a  is  the  side  laid  against  the 


Tools  Used  by  Painters. 


6s 


surface,  the  fitch  is  guided  by  the  edge  c,  and  the  space 
B  prevents  paint  spreading. 

Figs.   32   to  36   show  a   variety   of    larger  brushes 
specially  made  for  distemper  painting  and  preparation. 


Fisr.  31.—         /: 


Section  of  > 

Straight-Edffe.  C — = 


Fig.  34. — Paddle  Distemper  Brush  on  Nailed  StocV. 

Fig.  32  is  the  distemper-brush,  such  as  is  used  by  the 
leading  decorators  for  the  best  kind  of  work.  This 
form  of  brush  is  fitted  with  a  strong  brass  band. 
The  best  and  finest  are  made  with  yellow  and  grey 
bristles,  which   are   about   6  in.    long.     These  brushes 

E 


66 


House  Decoration:. 


are  witliout  doubt  the  most  suitable  size  and  shape 
for    spreading  properly  prepared  "jellied"   distemper. 


Fig.  35. — Scotch  Distemper  Brush.    Fig.  36. — Pasting  Brush. 


Fig.  37. — Liiner,    used  with  a  Long  Handle. 

Fig-  33  represents  a  useful  brush,  made  of  black  hair 
and  fibre,  for  washing  oif  old  distemper  from  ceilings 
and  walls.     Fig.  34  shows  the  distemper-brush  very 


Tools  Used  by  Painters. 


67 


general  in  the  West  of  England  and  other  provincial 
parts,  where  it  is  commonly  known  as  a  "paddle" 
brush.  Nothing  but  a  wash  can  be  spread  with  them. 
Its  broad  thin  shape  tells  plainly  how  little  jellied  dis- 
temper is  understood  and  used  in  parts  where  the 
"  paddle  "  is  called  for.  They  are  always  made  with  grey 
or  black  hair.     Fig.  35  is  a  good  shape,  but  rather  too 


Fig.  3'8.— Stippler. 


Fig.  39.— Stippler  with 
Eeversible  Handle. 


Fig.  40. — Stippler  with 
Brido-e  Handle. 


heavy  and  clumsy  for  best  work.  The  five  kinds  just 
described  are  always  made  with  handles,  as  shown. 

Fig.  37  is  made  for  use  with  a  long  handle  ;  other- 
wise, it  corresponds  closely  with  Fig.  33.  In  some  parts 
of  the  country  this  "limer"  is  the  principal  ceiling- 
brush  used.  A  practised  hand  can  get  over  a  great 
quantity  of  sizing  and  distemper  washing  with  one,  and 
save  erecting  the  scaffold  also.  Limers  of  the  best  kind 
are  as  expensive  as  distemper  brushes.  Fig.  36  represents 
a  good  pasting-brush,  and  useful  for  distemper  work  also. 

Stipplers  are  the  most  costly  of  painters'  brushes. 
They  are  used  for  obliterating  the  brush  markings,  m 
*' flatting"  and  other  processes,  by  a  beating  action, 


68 


House  Decoration, 


executed  evenly  and  carefully  after  the  paint  is  applied 
and  roughly  distributed.  They  require  careful  attention 
to  keep  in  order,  and  should  directly  after  use  be 
washed  with  plenty  of  soap  and  warm  water,  without 
wetting  the  "stock"  or  wood.  When  all  the  paint  is 
removed,  rinse  in  cold  water,  and  accelerate  the  drying 
by  beating  on  a  dry  cloth  or  wash-leather.  Fig.  38 
shows  one  with  handle  at  end ;  they  are  also  made 


Figs.  41  to  44.— How  to  Tie  a  Paint  Brush. 

cwith  handles  on  the  back  and  reversible  handles. 
Fig.  39  has  a  reversible  handle ;  Fig.  40  has  a  bridge 
handle.  They  are  used  for  distributing  paint  or 
vehicles  in  a  perfectly  regular  manner,  and  for  taking 
cut  paint-brush  streaks.  In  use,  the  paint  is  first 
spread — a  good  coat — and  then  the  work  is  at  once 
stippled  with  the  ends  of  bristles  until  a  regular 
surface  of  a  granular  nature  is  obtained. 

Many  people  who   need  a  paint-brush  find  that  it 
is  too  long  and  limp  to  work   well.     It  needs  tying. 


Tools   Used  by  Painters. 


69 


This  is  a  difficulty  to  the  inexperienced  ;  and  here  is  a 
method  of  tying  a  brush. 

First  tie  a  piece  of  stout  twine  (that  used  for 
Macram^  work  will  do  well)  round  the  brush,  leaving 
6  in.  or  7  in.  at  one  end  (marked  a  in  the  sketch).  Fig.  41 
shows  the  first  tie.  Fig.  42  shows  the  form  of  knot  used. 
The  end  A  should  be  made  to  lie  along  the  hair  of  the 
brush,  Fig.  43,  and  the  string  should  be  coiled  round  it 
9,nd  the  hair  of  the  bru-sh  as  many  times  as  necessary. 
When  enough  has  been  wound  around,  Fig.  44,  the  cord 
marked  b  may  be  bent  back,  drawn  close,  and  a  half -knot 
made  opposite  the  first  knot.  Both  cords  may  now  be 
fixed  with  small  tacks  to  the  stock  or  the  handle  of  the 


wir£ 


Fi^.  45. — Preserving  Paint  Brushes. 

brush,  and  the  superfluous  string  cut  off.  The  string 
need  not  be  bound  very  tightly,  for  either  paint  or  water 
will  make  it  sufficiently  tight  for  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  intended.  From  time  to  time,  part  of  the  string  can 
be  removed  as  the  bristles  wear  away. 

Paint-brushes  naturally  get  hard  and  useless  if  left 
exposed  to  the  air  with  paint  in  the  bristles,  since  the 
very  property  that  causes  the  paint  to  dry  causes  this 
hardening.  If  the  brushes  are  small  and  used  very  seldom, 
they  should  have  the  paint  rinsed  out  with  a  little  turpen- 
tine or  petroleum,  then  they  should  be  carefully  washed 
clean  with  soap  in  warm  water,  well  rinsed  in  cold  water, 


70 


House  Decoration. 


and  then  set  aside  to  dry  gradually.  Soda  ruins  the 
bristles,  and  hot  water  dissolves  the  cement  that  holds 
the  bristles  to  the  handles ;  so  do  not  use  either.  Brushes 
used  so  often  that  they  cannot  be  washed  between  whiles, 
should  have  the  paint  well  scraped  out,  and  the  brush 
then  stood  in  a  vessel  with  sufficient  water  to  cover  the 
bristles  ;  but  not  more  than  that,  since  the  string  bind- 
ing the  brush  gets  rotted.  Varnish  brushes  must  be 
served  exactly  as  those  used  for  paint,  so  far  as  wash- 
ing goes;  but  if  they  are  large  brushes,  and  often 
required,   they   must  be    carefully   stood    in  a  vessel 


Fig.  46. — Paint  Straining' 
Sieve. 


Fig.  47.— Patent  Paint 
Strainer. 


containing  raw  linseed  oil  instead  of  water,  as  with 
paint-brushes.  Each  time  the  brush  is  required  and 
done  with,  scrape  water,  paint,  and  oil  out  of  it. 

The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  45)  shows  a  good 
method  of  preserving  brushes.  Clean  out  the  brushes 
well,  and  make  a  hole  in  the  handles  to  let  the  wire  pass 
through,  and  then  let  them  hang  from  the  wire  without 
touching  the  bottom  ;  let  them  dip  in  linseed  oil.     t. 

Fig.  46  shows  an  easily-made  sieve  for  straining 
paints.  It  is  made  of  four  strips  of  M^ood  about  12  in. 
long,  4  in.  wide,  and  \  in.  thick,  nailed  together  to  form 
a  frame.  A  piece  of  coarse  canvas  tacked  or  tied  to  the 
frame  forms  the  strainer. 


Tools  Used  by  Painters. 


71 


Fig.  47  illustrates  a  recently -introduced  improvement 
in  paint  strainers,  which  ought  to  find  favour  among 
painters  and  colourmen.  This  consists  in  making  the 
strainer  in  such  a  form  that  the  copper  wire  gauze 
which  is  used  as  a  strainer  may  be  removed,  and  a  fresh 
piece  put  on  in  a  very  short  space  of  time,  thus  saving 
the  body  of  the  strainer,  and  rendering  it  still  useful  when 
the  wire  gauze  has  been  worn  out.  The  illustration, 
Fig.  47,  shows  the  body  of  the  strainer,  a,  at  top,  fitted 
with  the  clips,  b.    The  wire  gauze,  d,  fits  over  the  lower 


Fig*.  48. — Chisel-pointed  Stopping  Knife. 


Fig-.  50. — Chisel  or  Broad  Knife. 


part  of  the  strainer,  and  is  held  in  place  by  what  is 
called  the  compression  band,  c,  over  which  the  clips.  B, 
fit  down,  holding  the  difi"erent  parts  tightly  together. 
In  the  lower  part  of  the  illustration  the  strainer  is  shown 
with  the  gauze  and  band  on,  and  the  clips  closed  down. 
The  strainer  costs  2s.,  and  the  gauzes,  which  are  made 
in  three  sizes,  are  sold  at  5d.  per  piece. 

Five  of  the  knives  most  used  by  the  house  painter 
are  shown.  Fig.  48  represents  a  chisel  knife ;  or  it  may 
be  termed  a  stopping  knife  with  chisel  point.  Fig.  49 
shows  the  most  useful  shape  of  stopping  knife,  with 
which  holes  and  indentations  of  wood-work,  etc.,  are 


72 


House  Decoration. 


filled  with  putty.  Fig.  50  is  tlie  "  chisel  knife  "  proper, 
but  as  often  termed  the  broad  knife ;  this  is  used  for 
stripping  and  scraping  old  walls,  filling  up  wood-work, 
stopping  plaster  walls,  etc.,  and  is  a  very  useful  tool. 
Fig.  51  is  a  knife  having  a  thin  steel"  blade;  it  is 
used  for  mixing  paints  on  a  slab.  Fig.  52  and  Fig.  53 
are  more  properly  glaziers'  knives  than  house  painters' ; 
the  first  is  the  putty  knife,  indispensable  for  glazing 
sashes,  and  the  latter  the  hacking  knife,  for  use  with  a 
hammer  for  chipping  out  the  old  hard  putty  previous 
to  re-glazing. 

A  portable  balcony,  used  when  painting  windows 


3 


Fiff.  51.— Palette  Knife. 


Fig-.  53. — Glazier's  Hacking  Knife. 

outside,  is  shown  in  the  illustrations  on  page  73.  Fig.  54 
is  a  side  elevation,  and  Fig.  55  a  perspective  sketch  of  a 
contrivance  used  by  painters  when  painting  and  cleaning 
the  outsides  of  windows.  It  is  used  in  this  way  : — The 
lower  sash  is  raised,  and  the  bracketed  portion  is  put 
outside,  and  dropped  down  until  the  board  rests  on  the 
sash-bead  on  the  sill  of  window.  The  abutment  piece, 
c,  is  then  pulled  tightly  against  the  outside  of  wall,  and 
the  pins,  a,  are  put  through  two  of  the  most  convenient 
of  the  holes,  marked  b.  That  will  allow  of  the  pins 
pinching  against  the  nosing  of  window  board  inside  the 
room.  A  piece  of  wood  or  soft  cloth  should  be  first  put 
over  the  window  board,  to  prevent  damage  ;  sometimes 


Tools  Used  by  Painters. 


73 


it  is  necessary  to  pack  out  between  the  nosing  and  the 
pins,  A.  The  holes,  b,  should  be  made  quite  square 
and  true,  so  that  the  pins  fit  tightly  in  and  will 
not  wobble.    Sometimes  the  holes  are  first  made  in 


Fig.  54. — Portable  Balcony  in  position  for  use. 

— ^ yl i 


Fig.  55. — Perspective  Sketch  of  Portable  Balcony. 

strips  of  iron  plate,  and  then  screwed  on  top  and  bottom 
of  the  board,  and  the  holes  through  the  wood  made 
between  the  holes  in  the  iron.  This  prevents  the  wood 
wearing,  and  so  allowing  the  pins  to  become  loose.  A 
piece  of  packing  should  be  put  on  the  window-sill 
outside,  at  d.  Although  this  arrangement  is  much  used, 
it  does  not  appear  so  safe  as  it  ought  to  be. 


74 


CHAPTER  T. 

HOW   TO   MIX    OIL    PAINTS. 

To  set  down  exactly  the  proportions  of  different  pigments 
necessary  for  producing  any  desired  tint  or  colour  may, 
at  first  sight,  appear  an  easy  task.  For  instance  :  it  may 
be  said,  "  Mix  together  three  parts  of  lead,  two  of  black, 
and  one  of  yellow,"  but  the  practical  information  given 
is  small.  Apart  from  the  fact  that  there  is  a  great 
number  of  different  browns,  ideas  vary  considerably  as 
to  what  is  a  brown ;  and  this  applies  to  every  other 
colour.  If  a  dozen  practical  house  painters  were  asked 
to  mix  a  maroon  paint,  it  is  almost  certain  that  no  two 
of  them  would  be  exactly  alike,  even  though  compounded 
from  the  same  materials.  When  opinions  differ  so  widely 
ELS  to  the  exact  tint  or  shade  of  a  named  colour,  to  give 
proportions  of  materials  with  exactness  in  the  above- 
mentioned  formula  has  but  indefinite  value,  because  the 
kind  of  red  is  not  mentioned ;  nor,  indeed,  is  the  kind 
of  yellow,  nor  of  black. 

Another  and  even  more  important  reason  makes  it 
impossible  to  give  exact  proportions ;  and  this  is  owing 
to  the  strength  and  quality  of  paints  of  different  manu- 
facture differing  so  largely.  The  pigments  used  by  one 
maker  may  be  strictly  pure,  while  those  used  by  another 
may  contain  fifty  per  cent,  of  adulterant,  and  for  that 
reason  be  only  of  half  the  full  tinting  strength  ;  or  they 
may  be  pure,  and  yet  be  deficient  in  tinting  strength. 
Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  even  with  a  sample  colour  to 
work  to,  the  results  would  differ  unless  materials  were 
used  of  exactly  the  same  quality  in  each  case. 

Although  it  is  not  possible  to  give  proportions  of 
materials  in  figures,  it  is  possible  to  give  some  idea  of 
tlie  amount  of  each  colour  that  should  be  used ;  and  ia 


HoTV  TO  Mix  Oil  Paints.  75 

making  out  the  list  whicli  follows,  the  proportions  in 
each  case  are  indicated  as  closely  as  it  is  safe  to  go.  It 
is  supposed  that  pigments  of  first  quality  are  used  ;  and 
the  reader  must  be  warned  that  if  inferior  pigments  are 
employed  the  tints  produced  by  the  admixture  of  them 
will  always  be  more  or  less  unsatisfactory,  having,  as  a 
rule,  a  muddy  cast  that  is  very  objectionable. 

A  word  may  be  said  as  to  the  names  of  colours  used 
in  the  following  list : — It  would  be  an  easy  matter  to 
make  the  list  ten  times  longer  than  it  is  by  including 
all  the  names  of  colours  that  are  used  in  the  arts,  especi- 
ally those  employed  by  the  manufacturers  of  textiles. 
Turning,  for  instance,  to  a  list  of  new  colours  for  ladies* 
dresses,  we  find  "  iiseron,"  a  pink  having  a  violet  tinge  ; 
"  venus,"  a  flesh  pink ;  "  iris,"  a  pale  flesh  shade  ; 
"  gluten,"  a  deep  cream  ;  **  australien,"  a  deep  orange ; 
"  skobeleflV  a  bright  green  ;  "  aloes,"  a  medium  grey- 
green  ;  and  many  others.  Then  there  are  a  thousand 
and  one  colours  bearing  even  more  fanciful  names,  such 
as  "  elephant's  breath,"  "  crushed  strawberry "  (now  a 
well-defined  colour  among  linen-drapers),  "maiden's 
tears,"  etc.  ;  in  fact,  it  is  puzzling  to  know  the  extent  to 
which  such  names  will  go. 

And  names  of  pigments  are  not  always  synonymous 
with  the  colours.  Dutch  pink  is  yellow;  verditer  is  blue  ; 
lake  is  not  purple-blue  always,  but  sometimes  green, 
yellow,  brown,  etc. ;  or  it  may  be  found  as  a  pigment 
colour,  with  a  chalk  base,  or  body,  for  fugitive  colours. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  the  actual  method  ol 
mixing,  a  few  general  remarks  on  colours  may  be  given. 
White  lead  is  used  for  the  base  of  paints,  because  that 
pigment  possesses  greater  covering  properties — or  body, 
as  it  is  technically  termed— than  any  other.  Zinc  white 
may  be  used  for  a  base  under  certain  conditions,  and 
colour  mixed  with  it  will  not  be  so  likely  to  fade  as  when 
mixed  with  lead.  The  tendency  of  zinc  white,  however, 
to  chip  and  crack  renders  the  addition  of  lead  necessary 
in  most  cases.  When  practicable,  the  natural  earth  pig- 
ments should  be  used  for  tinting  purposes  in  preference 


76  House  Decoration. 

to  those  which  are  manufactured.  Raw  umbers,  ra-w 
siennas,  etc.,  will  be  found  to  last  longer  than  burnt 
umbers  and  burnt  siennas.  As  a  rule,  burnt  umber 
should  not  be  used  for  outside  painting,  but  the  required 
shade  should  be  obtained  by  mixing  lamp-black  and  an 
oxide  colour,  such  as  Venetian  red. 

Common  colours  include  lamp-bKick,  red  lead,  white 
lead,  Venetian  red,  umbers,  and  all  other  common  ochres, 
such  as  greys,  buffs,  stones,  etc.  Superior  or  ornamental 
colours  include  bright  yellows,  warm  tints,  blues,  mineral 
greens,  etc.  Some  colours — such  as  verditer,  pea  greens, 
rich  reds,  pinks,  and  bright  blues — are  charged  at  a 
higher  rate  still  as  delicate  tints. 

In  compounding  pigments  for  painting,  there  is  yet  a 
further  matter  requiring  some  little  consideration  by  the 
worker.  All  blue  pigments  are  not  chemically  suitable 
for  mixture  with  yellows  or  reds,  nor  all  yellows  with 
reds — in  fact,  a  knowledge  of  the  chemical  source  and 
afiBnities  of  pigments  is  almost  a  necessity  to  the  painter 
and  decorator.  As  the  most  brief  and  simple  way  of 
aiding  the  student,  it  will  be  well  to  mention  those 
ordinary  pigments  which  it  is  usually  advisable  not  to 
mix  together. 

For  mixing  with  oil  colour  paints,  chrome  is  an  unde- 
sirable pigment,  and  it  is  particularly  to  be  avoided  when 
compounding  greens  from  Prussian  or  Antwerp  blues, 
which  latter  colours  it  would  eventually  destroy.  In 
such  an  instance,  for  common  use  the  best  substitute 
for  the  chrome  would  be  bright  yellow  ochre,  or,  as  it  is 
often  labelled,  yellow  paint.  Raw  sienna  can  also  be 
used  with  the  above  blue  pigments  without  much  detri- 
ment to  either.  In  any  case  where  a  bright  mixed  green 
is  absolutely  necessary,  the  lemon  chrome  can  be  used  in 
conjunction  with  good  ultramarine  blue  or  indigo. 

In  compounding  the  secondary  colour  of  purple  from 
blues  and  reds,  there  is  less  danger  of  trouble  arising. 
For  oil  painting,  the  best  and  purest  are  obtained  by 
mixing  ultramarine  with  madder  lake  (which  is  a 
beautiful  crimson  and  transparent  permanent  pigment), 


How  TO  Mix  Oil  Paints.  77 

whilb  lakes  derived  from  cochineal  are  unstable,  or 
ultramarine  and  vermilion  will  answer.  Prussian  blue 
and  vermilion  give  very  deep  purple,  which  may  be 
lighted  up  with  white.  For  common  purposes,  the  cheap 
purple  brown  is  most  useful,  if  required  full  in  strength  ; 
but  if  lighter  and  pure  tints  are  wanted  in  oil  or  dis- 
temper, ultramarine  blue  and  vermilion,  or,  for  cheap- 
ness, Venetian  red,  is  necessary.  Prussian  blue  in  water 
would  not  suit  so  well,  but  indigo  could  be  used  if  cost 
is  not  a  consideration. 

The  remaining  secondary,  orange,  is  not  a  colour  very 
much  called  for.  In  orange  chrome  or  orange  red  we  have 
a  bright  opaque  pigment,  but  otherwise,  like  all  the 
chromes,  not  a  commendable  article.  Burnt  sienna  is  a 
very  opposite  pigment  in  both  nature  and  source.  It  is 
semi-transparent,  reliable,  and  permanent,  and — what 
also  the  practical  student  must  always  bear  in  mind — it 
is,  when  of  good  quality,  a  remarkably  strong  stainei,  like 
Prussian  blue  in  this  respect.  In  compounding  orange 
colour,  the  reds  and  ochres  already  mentioned  are  usually 
bright  enough ;  yellow  ochre  and  Venetian  red,  or  raw 
and  burnt  sienna  together,  give  us,  with  white  lead,  a 
good  and  serviceable  variety  of  permanent  orange  and 
salmon  tints. 

The  compounding  of  the  third  division  of  material 
colours,  the  tertiary,  from  either  of  the  two  secondaries, 
is  a  subject  that  need  scarcely  here  be  dealt  with.  The 
student  who  works  at  this  subject  practically  will  soon 
find,  from  the  foregoing  and  subsequent  remarks,  those 
secondary  pigments  of  orange  and  green  which  produce 
the  tertiary  citrine,  whether  bright  or  sombre,  such  as 
occasion  requires.  Of  the  remaining  tertiaries,  russet 
and  olive,  prepared  from  the  secondaries  purple  and 
orange,  purple  and  green,  respectively,  we  have  a  good 
supply  in  the  form  of  simple  pigments.  Notwithstand- 
ing, therefore,  the  necessity  and  advantage  of  the  worker 
being  able  to  obtain  any  colour  by  the  admixture  of  the 
three  primaries,  it  is  always  most  economical  to  use  a 
simple  article  of  the  desired  colour  when  it  is  to  be  had 


78  House  Decoration, 

In  the  actual  mixing  of  paints,  it  must  not  be  thought 
that  there  is  any  one  way  that  is  exactly  right  while  all 
other  methods  are  exactly  wrong.  Every  painter  has 
his  own  peculiar  way.  In  nearly  all  cases,  the  simplest 
plan  is  to  use  pigments  ground  in  oil  instead  of  dry 
powders.  With  a  pallet  knife  break  up  the  lead  rather 
stiflf,  adding  a  little  oil.  Thin  down  each  paint  until  it 
is  rather  stiffer  than  the  whole  will  be  when  ready  for 
actual  application ;  or  if  dry  pigments  be  used,  add 
a  little  on,  and  thoroughly  mix.  The  lead,  zinc,  or 
other  base  being  ready,  add  some  pigment,  and  well 
stir.  If  several  pigments  are  required  to  produce  the 
tint,  be  sure  to  add  only  one  at  a  time,  and  take  great 
care  that  each  is  thoroughly  mixed  before  the  next  one 
is  added.  As  a  further  precaution,  it  is  well  not  to  add 
the  pigment  all  at  once,  but  to  do  so  a  little  at  a  time. 
When  it  is  certain  that  a  thorough  admixture  has  been 
effected,  the  next  pigment  may  be  added  a  little  at  a  time. 
It  is  well  to  remember  that  some  pigments,  such  as 
Prussian  blue,  are  very  strong,  and  the  addition  of  too 
much  will  spoil  the  job.  It  is  easy  to  add  a  little  more, 
while  it  is  impossible  to  take  ;iny  out.  A  little  pre- 
caution in  this  respect  will  save  much  trouble ;  and 
although  it  takes  longer  to  mix  a  batch  of  paint,  it 
IS  the  much  safer  plan.  Of  course,  a  practical  man 
who  is  used  to  frequently  mixing  paints  can  add 
the  necessary  amount  of  colours  without  taking  these 
precautions. 

Having  mixed  the  paint,  add  as  much  driers  as  may 
be  necessary,  taking  care  not  to  use  too  much.  Then  the 
paint  should  be  strained  through  a  fine  wire  strainer.  It 
is  well  to  mix  up  enough  of  the  paint  in  one  batch  to  do 
the  whole  of  the  job  in  hand,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
trouble  or  waste  of  time  in  matching  tints.  Paint  mixed 
in  cold  weather  is  very  likely  to  give  unsatisfactory  re- 
sults, because  the  oil  will  stiffen  and  be  more  difficult  to 
form  into  a  perfect  admixture.  To  remedy  this,  a  gallon 
or  so  of  the  oil  should  be  heated,  and  this  poured  in  will 
warm  up  the  paint,  and  prevent  It  "pulling"  whec 


How  TO  Mix  Oil  Paints.  79 

applied,  and  so  avoid  the  unnecessary  force  required  to 
draw  the  brush  along. 

In  preparing  oil  paint,  the  first  question  to  be  con- 
sidered is  the  nature  of  the  surface  to  be  painted,  whether 
of  wood,  stone,  or  metal,  and  to  what  degree  it  is  absor- 
bent ;  second  to  this  must  be  remembered  the  conditions 
and  position  of  the  work,  such  as  refer  to  expense,  dura- 
bility, and  drying  qualities  ;  and  lastly,  to  bear  in  mind 
the  all-important  matter  of  appearance  and  colour, 
whether  the  paint  is  for  the  first  or  last  coat.  We  will 
therefore  proceed  to  an  imaginaiy  mixing  of  paint  for 
wood,  stone,  and  metal,  bringing  in  a  lesson  on  their 
application  to  the  walls  and  wood- work  of  a  building. 

The  quantities  of  driers,  oil,  and  turpentine  required 
to  bring  1  cwt.  of  white  lead  to  the  consistency  of  paint 
is  a  matter  that  must  be  varied  according  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  work  it  is  required  for.  In  summer-time, 
1  lb.  of  good  driers  to  14  of  white  lead  is  ample  for 
out-door  purposes;  in  winter-time,  1  in  10  would  be 
best.  The  quantity  of  oils  required  would  be  about 
1^  gallons  for  the  cwt.  of  lead.  The  proportions  of 
linseed  oil  and  oil  of  turpentine  it  is  advisable  to  use 
depends  entirely  upon  the  purpose  we  intend  it  for. 
With  reference  to  the  question  of  boiled  or  unboiled  oil, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  both  oils  are  glossy  when 
applied  in  sufficient  quantity  ;  boiled  linseed  oil  has 
more  body,  and  is  more  brilliant  than  raw  linseed  oil ; 
raw  linseed  oil  is  lighter  in  colour,  and  is  not  so  liable  to 
blister  as  boiled  linseed  oil ;  boiled  linseed  oil  dries 
quicker  than  raw  linseed  oil. 

To  mix  1  lb.  of  ordinary  oil  paint,  take  about  3  ozs. 
of  pigment  the  desired  colour  :  thus,  white  lead  for 
white,  light  greys,  pinks,  cream,  etc. ;  Venetian  red  or 
vermilion  for  red  ;  and  so  on,  according  to  the  price  and 
colour  desired.  Add  to  this  about  2  ozs.  of  patent 
paste  or  liquid  driers  ;  then  make  up  to  1  lb.  with 
either  linseed  oil  alone  or  oil  and  turpentine  in  equal 
parts.  Kemember,  the  more  oil  the  more  driers  is  ad- 
visable, but  never  leas  than  1  pjirt  driers  io  8  or  lu  of 


8o  House  Decoration. 

entire  bulk.  If  only  casual  pounds  of  paint  are  wanted, 
that  sold  ready  mixed,  at  prices  from  3|d.  to  5d.  per  lb., 
according  to  district  and  maker,  would  be  cheapest, 
and  should  do  for  common  inside  work.  A  single  pound 
could  not  be  made  so  cheaply,  and  some  of  the  colours 
sold — bright  red,  for  instance — could  not  be  made  at 
twice  the  figure.  If  varnished,  they  stand  a  lot  of 
wear. 

To  make  French  grey  paint. — The  ingredients  for 
making  about  40  lbs.  of  best  glossy  paint  for  indoors, 
tinted  to  a  French  grey  colour,  would  be,  say,  \  cwt. 
(28  lbs.)  genuine  white  lead,  3  lbs.  best  patent  driers,  about 
\  gallon  raw  linseed  oil,  and  1  quart  turpentine.  Mix 
up  the  lead  and  driers  with  a  broad  stick  to  the  con- 
sistency of  a  thick  paste,  using  linseed  oil  If  all  is 
to  be  tinted  one  colour,  for  French  grey  add  a  little 
ultramarine  blue  and  either  a  little  Venetian  red 
or  common  black.  If  a  warm  grey  is  wanted,  add  the 
red ;  if  a  cool  metallic  tint,  add  the  black.  The  ultra- 
marine can  only  be  bought  in  powder ;  well  mix  this 
with  a  little  oil  before  adding  it  to  the  paint ;  the  other 
colours  can  easily  be  obtained  ready  ground  in  oil. 
Respecting  the  economical  aspect  of  ready-mixed  v.  best 
paint,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  the  former,  sold  as  low 
as  Ssd.  per  lb.  in  some  parts,  can  be  equal  in  value  to 
the  best  white  lead  paint,  especially  as  the  genuine  white 
lead  may  cost  4d.  per  lb..  The  blue  powder  will  pro- 
bably cost  about  2s.  6d.  per  lb.,  and  at  least  \  lb.  will  be 
required.  The  liquids  lower  the  average  cost  per  lb. 
when  the  quantity  is  all  made  ready  for  use  ;  but  when 
one  considers  the  time  required  for  making  the  paint, 
matching  a  particular  colour,  and  then  straining  the 
paint  through  muslin  or  a  very  fine  sieve,  the  price 
usually  asked  for  such  best  paint — viz.,  6d.  per  lb. — is 
but  fair  value.  For  first  coating  on  new  plaster,  one  c&n 
use  nearly  all  linseed  oil  and  a  little  driers — very  little 
lead.  This  will  stop  the  suction  of  the  plaster.  As 
a  rule,  new  plaster  requires  four  coats  to  get  a  good 
surface. 


How  TO  Mix  Oil  Paints.  8i 

'  TJhe  following  alphabetical  list  of  colours,  with  pro- 
portions of  ingredients,  will  be  found  useful : — 

Amaranth. — This  is  a  bright  brown.  It  is  made  by 
mixing  together  light  Tuscan  red  and  vermilion,  with 
the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  ultramarine  blue. 

Amber  Brown. — Use  orange  chrome  yellow,  burnt 
sienna,  burnt  umber,  and  lamp-black,  and  add  white 
until  the  desired  shade  is  produced. 

Antique  Bronze. — Mix  together  orange  chrome  yellow 
and  ivory  black. 

Ajyple  Green. — Use  light  chrome  green,  white  lead, 
and  orange  chrome  yellow. 

Ashes  of  Bases. — Mix  together  light  Tuscan  red  and 
lamp-black. 

Azure. — This  is  a  beautiful  tone  of  blue,  that  may  be 
best  described  as  a  dark  shade  of  sky  blue.  Take  white 
as  a  base,  and  add  Prussian  blue  until  the  requisite  shade 
is  obtained. 

Bismarck  Brown. — This  colour  may  be  bought  ready 
for  use,  and  it  may  be  lightened  if  necessary.  To  imitate 
it,  mix  burnt  sienna,  orange  chrome  yellow,  and  burnt 
umber,  and  lighten  up  with  white  lead. 

Bottle  Green.— Tske  Prussian  blue,  and  add  a  small 
quantity  of  lamp-black  and  a  little  lemon  chrome  yellow. 
The  colour  will  be  principally  made  up  of  the  blue,  the 
black  and  yellow  producing  the  requisite  greenish  cast. 

Brass. — Add  medium  chrome  yellow,  French  ochie, 
and  a  little  umber  to  white  as  a  base. 

Brick  Colour. — By  brick  colour  is  generally  meant 
a  slightly  yellowish-red,  sometimes  termed  brick  red. 
It  may  be  produced  by  adding  Venetian  red  and  white 
to  yellow  ochre.  Two  parts  of  ochre,  one  of  red,  and 
one  of  white  give  some  idea  of  the  proportions  to  use, 
but  less  white  may  be  often  used  with  advantage. 

Bronze  Green. — This  is  a  mixture  of  chrome  green, 
black,  and  umber.  If  very  dark  chrome  green  is  used, 
very  little,  if  any,  of  the  umber  will  be  required.  The 
black  may  be  either  lamp  or  ivory  black.  The  propor- 
|;ions  of  the  colours  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  exact 


82  House  Decoration, 

shaxie  required  :  five  parts  of  medium  chrome  green,  one 
part  of  lamp-black,  and  one  part  of  umber,  all  of  good 
quality,  will  give  an  excellent  bronze  green  of  about 
a  medium  degree  of  intensity. 

Brown. — There  are  many  different  shades  of  brown, 
varying  from  very  light  to  very  dark.  They  may  all  be 
produced  by  using  Venetian  red  as  a  base,  and  adding 
lamp-black  and  yellow  ochre.  Three  parts  of  red,  two 
of  black,  and  one  of  yellow  ochre  give  a  medium  rich 
brown,  and  other  shades  may  be  produced  by  using  more 
or  less  of  the  black  and  yellow.  A  little  white  may  be 
added  when  it  is  desired  to  give  the  brown  a  drabbish 
cast. 

Broim  Stone. — Mix  orange  chrome  yellow,  dark 
Tuscan  red,  and  lamp-black.  Add  white  lead  until  the 
desired  tint  is  obtained. 

Buff. — Light  or  dark  buffs  are  made  by  taking  white 
as  the  base,  and  adding  French  ochre.  If  a  very  dark 
buff  is  required,  a  very  little  Venetian  red  may  be  added  ; 
but,  as  a  rule,  the  French  ochre  will  be  sufficient. 
Chrome  yellow  and  white,  tinged  with  Venetian  red, 
may  also  be  used. 

Buttercup  Yellow. — This  colour  is  produced  simply  by 
mixing  together  lemon  chrome  yellow  and  white  lead. 

Canary. — This  is  simply  a  very  light  but  bright 
yellow.  Add  lemon  chrome  yellow  to  white  until  the 
desired  shade  is  obtained.  If  an  average  chrome  is  used, 
the  proportions  will  be  about  three  parts  of  yellow  to  five 
of  white. 

Carnation. — This  beautiful  red  is  made  by  adding 
carmine  to  pure  vermilion,  lightening  up  with  zinc  white, 
if  necessary.  It  need  hardly  be  added  that  to  obtain  the 
requisite  purity  and  intensity  of  carnation,  only  the  best 
vermilion  and  carmine  must  be  used. 

Cerulean.— This,  is  obtained  by  lightening  up  ultra- 
marine blue  with  white. 

Chestnut. — This  colour  is  generally  accepted  as  that 
of  the  skin  of  the  chestnut— a  rich  brown.  It  is  made 
from  Venetian  red  as  a  base,  with  the  addition  thereto 


How  TO  Mix  Oil  Faints.  83 

of  medium  chrome  yellow,  yellow  ochre,  and  lamp-black, 
in  about  equal  proportions. 

Chocolate. — A  very  rich  chocolate  colour  may  be  ob- 
tained by  adding  carmine  to  burnt  umber.  A  less 
brilliant  colour  will  be  produced  by  using  lake  instead 
of  the  carmine.  If  a  chocolate  of  a  more  brownish  cast 
is  required,  make  a  brown  by  mixing  Indian  red  and 
lamp-black,  and  lighten  up  with  yellow  ochre,  or  mix 
Spanish  browUj  Venetian  red,  and  vegetable  black. 

Citrine. — Mix  together  with  lead,  orange  chrome 
yellow  and  lamp-black. 

Citron. — This  is  a  rich  and  dark  green,  that  takes  its 
name  from  the  citron  fruit.  It  is  made  by  adding  Prus- 
sian blue,  chrome  yellow,  and  w^hite  to  Venetian  red. 
If  a  very  strong  colour  is  required,  the  white  may  be 
omitted. 

Claret. — This  colour  may  be  obtained  by  mixing 
Venetian  red  and  black,  but  by  far  the  richest  colour  is 
obtained  as  follows  : — Mix  together  ultramarine  and 
carmine,  then  add  s^ermilion,  and  tone  down  with  a 
very  little  black — ivory  black  is  best. 

Clay  i)ra6s.— These  colours  vary  a  good  deal  in  in- 
tensity. Take  white  as  a  base,  and  add  raw  umber  and 
^raw  sienna,  with  a  very  little  medium  chrome  yellow. 

Cohalt.—Th.Qve.  is  a  regular  blue  that  is  sold  as  cobalt, 
iind  that  may  be  used  exactly  as  purchased ;  or  it  may 
be  lightened  up  somewhat  with  white,  if  required. 
Cobalt  cannot  be  successfully  imitated  by  mixing  other 
blues. 

Copper. — To  produce  this  colour  in  its  full  richness, 
only  first  -class  materials  should  be  employed.  Six  parts 
of  Venetian  red,  three  of  medium  chrome  yellow,  and  two 
of  lamp-black  will  give  satisfactory  results ;  but  less  of 
the  black  will  frequently  have  to  be  used,  especially  when 
the  red  and  yellow  are  of  second-grade  quality. 

Cream. — Add  French  ochre  to  white.  Only  a  little 
ochre  will  be  required  ;  if  more  is  used,  the  colour  would 
more  properly  be  termed  a  buff.  Chrome  yellow  and 
Venetian  red  added  to  white  will  also  give  a  buff. 


84  House  Decoration, 

Crimson. — This  colour  may  be  produced  by  using  the 
dark  shades  of  scarlet  reds  or  dark  English  vermilion, 
adding  a  little  carmine.  A  richer  result  will  be  obtained 
if  the  carmine  is  used  to  glaze  with.      '' 

Dove. — Lamp-black  and  ultramarine  blue  mixed  with 
white,  and  tinted  up  with  a  little  Indian  red,  will  give  a 
dove  colour. 

Drab. — Add  to  a  base  of  white,  raw  or  burnt  umber 
and  a  little  Venetian  red. 

Dregs  of  Wine. — Mix  together  dark  Tuscan  red  and 
lamp-black,  and  add  a  little  white  lead. 

Ecru. — This  colour  is  intended  to  show  the  tint  of 
raw  flax  or  hempen  fabrics,  and  may  be  produced  by 
mixing  together  white  lead,  French  ochre,  burnt  sienna, 
and  lamp-black. 

Electric  Blue. — Ultramarine  blue  and  white  lead,  to 
which  add  a  little  raw  sienna. 

Emerald  Green. — A  very  good  imitation  may  be  ob- 
tained by  using  the  lightest  shade  of  chrome  green. 

Fawn. — Eight  parts  of  white,  two  of  medium  chrome 
yellow,  one  of  Venetian  red,  and  one  of  burnt  umber, 
all  of  good  quality,  mixed  together,  make  a  good  fawn 
colour. 

Flesh. — Use  white  for  the  base,  and  add  yellow  ochre, 
Venetian  red,  and  medium  chrome  yellow.  Use  about 
three  parts  of  white  lead  to  two  parts  of  all  the  colours 
put  together,  and  use  a  little  more  red  than  of  the  ochre 
and  yellow. 

French  Grey. — This  is  often  made  by  simply  adding 
ivory  black  to  white ;  but  a  very  small  quantity  of 
carmine  and  ultramarine — ^just  enough  to  give  a  tinge — 
will  be  found  to  produce  the  truest  French  grey.     ^ 

French  Red. — The  colour  known  by  this  name  is  made 
by  lightening  up  Indian  red  with  vermilion  and  glazing 
with  carmine. 

Gazelle. — Mix  dark  Tuscan  red,  Venetian  red,  and 
lamp-black  ;  lighten  up  with  white  lead. 

Gold. — Tint  white  with  medium  chrome  yellow,  and 
add  a  little  French  ochre  and  just  a  touch  of  vermilion  \ 


How  TO  Mix  Oil  Paints.  85 

or  burnt  sienna  may  be  used  instead  of  the  ochre  and 
vermilion. 

Golden  Brown. — Use  French  ochre,  orange  chrome 
yellow,  and  lamp-black,  and  lighten  up  with  white  lead. 

Grass  Green. — Three  parts  of  lemon  chrome  yellow 
and  one  of  Prussian  blue  will  give  a  green  that  may  be 
termed  grass  green  ;  but  to  get  the  true  grass  green,  use 
extra  light  chrome  green  just  as  it  comes  from  the  can. 
On  very  high-class  work  this  green  may  be  glazed  over 
with  Paris  green,  when  a  very  handsome  effect  will  be 
obtained. 

Green. — There  are  so  many  shades  of  green  that  it  is 
thought  best  to  give  the  mixing  of  each  under  its  dis- 
tinguishing title,  such  as  olive  green,  bottle  green,  etc. 

Grey  Green. — Mix  together  white  lead,  ultramarine 
blue,  lemon  chrome  yellow,  and  lamp-black. 

Greys. — Greys  vary  in  intensity  from  very  light  to 
very  dark.  They  are  made  simply  by  mixing  white  and 
lamp-black.  Eight  parts  of  white  and  two  of  black  give 
a  medium  grey.  They  also  vary  considerably  in  the  hue, 
which  ranges  from  blue  to  brown.  A  little  indigo  added 
to  white  gives  a  grey  of  a  blue  hue,  and  light  red  and 
Prussian  blue  with  white,  a  brownish  hue. 

Hay  Colour. — Mix  white  lead,  orange  chrome  yellow, 
light,  chrome  green,  and  Tuscan  or  Indian  red. 

Jonquil. — This  is  a  bright  yellow,  and  the  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  flower  jonquil.  To  produce  it,  add  a  little 
pure  vermilion  to  medium  chrome  yellow,  and  add  this 
to  white  as  a  base. 

Lavender. — Take  white  as  a  base,  and  add  ivory  black 
and  a  little  carmine  and  ultramarine. 

Lead  Colour. — Add  lamp-black  and  Prussian  blue  to 
white.  Eight  parts  of  white,  one  of  black,  and  one  of 
blue  make  an  average  lead  colour ;  but  some  painters 
omit  the  blue  or  use  very  little,  and  use  about  one-and-a- 
half  parts  of  lamp-black.  Other  painters  prefer  to  use 
indigo. 

Leaf  Bud. — Mix  white  lead,  orange  chrome  yellow, 
and  light  chrome  green. 


86  House  Decoration. 

Leather. — This  colour  is  made  by  taking  French  ochre 
as  a  base,  and  adding  Venetian  red  and  burnt  umber. 
The  latter  should  only  be  added  when  a  warm  tone. is 
required 

Lemon. — A  perfect  lemon  colour  is  first-class  lemon 
chrome  yellow,  but  white  may  be  added  if  necessary. 

Light  jSwjf — Add  French  ochre  to  white.  Only 
comparatively  little  ochre  will  be  required  for  a  light  buff. 

Light  Grey. — This  is  produced  simply  by  adding 
lamp-black  to  white. 

Light  Oak. — Use  white  as  a  base,  and  add  French 
ochre  and  Venetian  red.  Five  parts  of  white,  two  of 
ochre,  and  one  of  red  make  a  colour  of  average  intensity  ; 
but  ideas  as  to  the  colour  of  oak  vary  much. 

Lilac. — Use  white  as  a  base,  and  add  dark  Indian  red 
and  Prussian  blue  in  the  proportion  of  three  of  the  former 
to  two  of  the  latter.  Violet  lightened  up  with  white  also 
gives  a  lilac. 

London  Smohe. — Use  yellow  ochre,  ultramarine  blue, 
and  lamp-black,  and  lighten  up  with  white  lead. 

Magenta. — Mix  together  carmine  and  vermilion,  and 
add  a  very  little  ultramarine  blue. 

Maroon. — Add  to  carmine  ivory  black  and  a  small 
portion  of  orange  chrome  yellow.  A  little  dark  Tuscan 
red  may  also  be  added,  if  wished. 

Mastic. — Use  French  ochre,  Venetian  red,  and  white 
lead,  in  the  proportions  required,  and  add  a  trifle  of 
lamp-black. 

Mauve. — Add  to  yellow  ochre  ivory  or  lamp-black, 
Venetian  red,  and  a  little  white  lead. 

Medium  Grey. — Eight  parts  of  white  and  two  of 
lamp-black  make  a  medium  grey. 

Mouse. — Use  white  as  a  base,  and  add  lamp-black  and 
a  very  little  burnt  umber  and  Venetian  red. 

Myrtle. — Mix  together  dark  chrome  green  and  ultra- 
marine, and  lighten  up  with  a  little  white  lead. 

Oa^.— See  light  oak. 

Old  Gold. — Add  to  white  as  a  base  medium  chrome 
yellow,  French  ochre,  and  a  little  umber. 


How  TO  Mix  Oil  Faints,  87 

Olive. — Mix  together  eight  parts  of  lemon  chrome 
yellow,  one  part  of  lamp-black,  and  one  part  of  Prussian 
blue.  Ochre  may  be  used  instead  of  yellow,  or  both 
yellow  and  ochre  together. 

Olive  Brown. — Mix  three  parts  of  burnt  umber  with 
one  part  of  lemon  yellow.  This  will  give  an  average 
olive  brown.  A  more  or  less  intense  colour  can  be  ob- 
tained by  varying  the  proportions  of  the  colours. 

Orange. — This  colour  may  be  made  from  chrome 
yellow. 

Pea  Green. — This  colour  is  obtained  simply  by  adding 
medium  chrome  green  to  white  as  a  base.  Five  parts  of 
white  to  one  of  green  give  an  average  pea  green. 

Peach  Blossom.— WhitQ  toned  up  with  first-class 
Indian  red  will  give  a  fine  peach-blossom  colour,  but 
eight  parts  of  white,  one  of  Tuscan  red,  one  of  Prussian 
blue,  and  one  of  medium  chrome  yellow  will  give  a  fair 
substitute.  Indian  red,  vermilion,  purple  brown,  and 
white  may  also  be  used. 

Peacock  Bhie. — Add  cobalt  blue  to  white,  with  a  very 
little  Chinese  blue.  Another  way  to  produce  the  same 
colour  is  to  mix  very  light  chrome  green  with  white  lead 
and  ultramarine  blue. 

Pearl. — This  colour  may  be  described  as  a  very 
light  French  grey.  It  is  produced  by  adding  ivory 
black  to  white,  with  a  faint  tinge  of  ultramarine  and 
carmine. 

Pink. — A  pink  may  be  made  by  adding  almost  any 
red  or  lake  to  white — the  brighter  the  red,  the  richer 
the  pink.  The  richest  pink  is  made  by  adding  carmine 
to  white. 

Plum. — Mix  together  ultramarine  blue  and  carmine  ; 
add  a  little  ivory  black  and  a  very  little  white.  This 
makes  a  very  rich  plum.  More  white  may  be  used  and 
the  black  omitted. 

Pompeian  Red. — There  is  a  good  deal  of  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  the  best  method  of  producing  this  colour, 
but  vermilion,  burnt  sienna,  and  umber,  lightened  with 
ochre,  may  be  relied  upon  for  giving  good  results.    A 


88  House  Decoration. 

little  vermilion  added  to  Venetian  red  will  also  be  found 
to  give  a  good  rich  tone. 

Portland  Stone. — Add  raw  umber  to  yellow  ochre, 
lightening  up  with  white  until  the  requisite  tone  is  ob- 
tained. Three  parts  of  yellow  ochre,  three  parts  of  raw 
umber,  and  one  of  white  will  produce  a  somewhat  dark 
Portland  stone  colour,  but  more  of  the  ochre  and  less  of 
umber  give  a  colour  that  comes  nearest  to  the  popular 
idea  of  this  colour. 

Prwirose. — ^,A.dd  to  white  lead  as  much  chrome 
yellow  as  may  be  necessary  to  produce  the  desired  in- 
tensity of  colour. 

Purple. — Add  Indian  red  to  white  ^  or  it  may  be  ob- 
tained in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  lilac,  but  with 
a  larger  proportion  of  blue. 

Purple  Brown. — This  colour  is  made  by  mixing  a 
dark  shade  of  Indian  red  with  lamp-black  and  ultra- 
marine blue.  The  tint  produced  is  usually  too  dark  for 
practical  use,  and  it  may  be  lightened  up  with  white  lead 
as  may  be  desired. 

Quaker  Drab. — Take  white  lead,  lamp-black,  burnt 
sienna,  and  French  ochre,  and  mix  together. 

Robin's  Egg. — This  colour  is  produced  by  adding 
ultramarine  to  white,  with  a  little  light  chrome 
green. 

Rose. — Add  carmine  to  zinc  white.  The  purity  of  the 
white  of  the  zinc  gives  a  very  perfect  rose  colour. 

Russet. — Mix  together  raw  umber,  medium  chrome 
green,  and  white  with  a  little  orange  chrome  yellow.  A 
simpler  plan  is  to  use  white  lead  and  orange  chrome 
yellow  with  a  little  lamp-black. 

Russian  Grey. — Mix  together  white  lead,  lamp-black, 
ultramarine  blue,  and  pale  Indian  red. 

Salmon. — French  ochre,  burnt  umber,  and  Venetian 
red,  added  to  white  as  a  base,  will  produce  this  colour  ; 
or  white  lead,  burnt  sienna,  French  ochre,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  vermilion  may  be  used. 

Scarlet. — Use  pale  vermilion  or  the  various  scarlet 
reds  that  are  on  the  market. 


How  TO  Mix  Oil  Paints,  89 

Shrimp  Pinh.—Min  white  lead,  Venetian  red,  and 
burnt  sienna,  and  add  a  little  vermilion. 

Silver.— Kdidi  a  little  indigo  to  white  lead,  with  a  very 
little  black. 

Shy  BltLe. — This  may  be  produced  by  simply  adding 
first-class  Prussian  blue  to  white. 

Slate. — This  colour  may  be  obtained  in  the  richest 
hue  (if  such  it  can  be  called)  by  mixing  white  lead, 
ultramarine  blue,  raw  umber,  with  a  small  quantity  of 
lamp-black. 

Snuff  Colour. — Add  burnt  umber  to  yellow  ochre, 
and  tinge  with  very  little  Venetian  red  ;  or  mix  to- 
gether four  parts  of  medium  chrome  and  two  of  burnt 
umber. 

Spruce  Yellow. — Mix  together  French  ochre  and  white 
lead,  and  add  a  very  little  Venetian  red. 

Stone  Colour. — Mix  together  five  parts  of  white,  two 
of  medium  chrome  yellow,  and  one  of  burnt  umber 
This  will  give  a  medium  yellow  drab  ;  lighter  or  darker 
ohades  in  great  variety  may  be  obtained  by  adding  more 
or  less  of  the  yellow  and  umber. 

Straw. — Add  white,  Venetian  red,  and  French  ochre 
to  medium  chrome  yellow  as  a  base. 

Tan. — This  colour  is  simply  made  by  mixing  white 
lead  and  burnt  sienna,  and  adding  a  very  little  lamp- 
black. 

Terra-cotta. — Add  Venetian  red  and  white  to  French 
ochre  as  a  base ;  or  mix  burnt  umber  and  orange  chrome 
yellow,  lightening  up  with  white,  as  may  be  necessary. 

Turquoise  Blue. — Add  to  white  lead,  cobalt  blue  and 
Paris  green,  or  a  little  light  chrome  green. 

Violet. — Add  pale  Indian  red  to  white  in  small  pro- 
portions. A  mixture  of  white,  Prussian  blue,  black,  and 
vermilion  will  also  give  a  violet. 

Willow  Green. — Add  medium  chrome  green  to  white, 
and  add  a  little  ivory  black  or  burnt  umber  ;  or  add  five 
parts  of  white  to  two  of  verdigris. 

Wine  Colour. — Mix  together  carmine  and  vermilion, 
and  add  ultramarine  and  a  very  little  ivory  black. 


90  House  Decoration. 

Ydlcm  Bronze.— Wys.  together  a  medium  shade  of 
chrome  yellow,  French  ochre,  and  a  very  little  burnt 
umber. 

Yellow  Lake. — Add  Naples  yellow  and  scarlet  lake 
to  equal  parts  of  umbey  and  white.  Glaze  with  yellow 
lake. 


91 


CHAPTER   VI. 

DISTEMPER  OR  TEMPERA  PAINTDfO. 

The  word  distemper  has  a  distinct  interpretation  in  its 
connection  with  the  brightening  and  embellishing  of  oui 
buildings.  Its  Italian  derivation,  tem'pera^  gives  at  once 
a  key  to  its  meaning,  when  compared  with  the  word 
tempering:  to  temper,  to  work  up,  or  to  mix.  Not- 
withstanding that  this  mixing,  or  tempering,  is  a  process 
common  to  all  painting,  oil  and  otherwise,  tempera  is  the 
recognised  name  for  luater  jminting :  that  is  to  say,  the 
compounding  and  spreading  of  ojmque  solids  and  pig- 
ments with  water  for  the  solvent,  and  some  suitable 
vehicle  introduced  to  bind  the  particles  together. 

It  is  a  process  seldom  used  in  this  countrj-,  except  for 
ceilings  :  but  the  Italian  painters  use  it  freely,  and  execute 
really  excellent  decorations  with  it.  At  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  altar-pieces,  covered  with  decorative 
pictures  with  hundreds  of  figures  in  them,  are  painted  in 
distemper.  It  is  common  for  painters  to  work  their 
distemper  as  if  it  were  oil  colour,  but  its  nature  is 
entirely  different.  Distemper  might  with  advantage  be 
used  in  bedrooms,  os  account  of  its  cleanliness,  the 
facility  with  which  it  can  be  removed,  and  its  health- 
some qualities  ;  and  cleanliness  of  walls  is  a  most  im- 
portant matter  in  every  house,  especially  during  hot 
weather,  when  so  much  dirt  and  dust  cling  to  them, 
endangering  life  and  health  at  every  respiration  by 
reason  of  the  germs  of  disease  contained  on  unclean 
walls.  With  colouring  matter  cheaper  than  paper, 
people  might  easily  purify  and  brighten  their  own  walls, 
as  indeed  they  commonly  do  north  of  the  Tweed. 

In  the  present  day,  the  qualities  and  cheapness  of 
distemper  make  it  as  valuable  to  the  decorator  as  are 
oil  and  flatting  paint     For  preservative  purposes,  and 


92  House  Decoration. 

as  s>  covering  for  surfaces  exposed  to  our  humid  atmo' 
sphere  and  weather,  distemper  is,  however,  practically 
useless  ;  and  although  under  fair  conditions  it  will  stand 
some  wear  and  tear  on  walls,  it  is  principally  in  situa- 
tions out  of  reach  and  beyond  abrasion  where  it  is  used 
with  more  advantage  than  oil  paint.  The  most  satis- 
factory purpose  to  which  to  apply  either  oil  paint  or 
distemper  will  readily  be  apparent  if  we  consider  their 
totally  distinct  qualities  and  nature.  In  the  former 
mixture,  whilst  the  linseed  oil  is  the  solvent,  it  is  also 
the  binding  factor,  driers  being  added  merely  to  hasten 
and  accentuate  the  hardening.  In  distemper  colour,  the 
solvent — water — has  no  such  permanent  action  as  has 
the  oil  in  the  former,  but  il:  is  entirely  dispersed  and 
carried  away  by  evaporation. 

It  therefore  follows  that  distemper,  besides  being  pre- 
pared from  dry  pigment  with  water  to  enable  us  to 
manipulate  it,  requires  a  third  and  highly  important 
factor  which  shall  of  itself  bind  the  particles  together, 
and  hold  them  in  position  when  evaporation  is  complete. 

The  leading  characteristic  of  distemper  is  absence 
of  gloss,  and  it  is  suited  solely  for  interior  and  unexposed 
situations  ;  yet  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  com- 
bine its  cheapness  with  the  permanent  qualities  of  oil 
paint. 

Before  distemper  work  was  so  common  as  size  and 
size  powders  and  improved  pigments  have  of  late 
years  made  it,  the  walls  of  apartments  were  sometimes 
painted  in  tempera,  and  finished,  at  some  expense, 
by  polishing  or  satining  with  French  chalk  and  flat 
brushes.  Nowadays,  however,  this  is  very  seldom  done 
directly  on  wall  surfaces,  although  a  similar  process  is 
still  used  on  some  paper-hangings.  Excess  of  vehicle  in 
distemper,  whether  gum,  glue,  or  size,  causes  it  to  crack 
and  peel  off;  so  that  even  though  an  egg-shell  gloss 
could  be  obtained,  were  sufficient  used,  it  would  only  be 
at  the  sacrifice  of  permanence.  The  ancient  tempera 
work  of  the  days  of  the  Pharaohs  was,  presumably, 
painted  on  in  water,  and  afterwards  covered  with  wax. 


Distemper  or  Tempera  Painting.         93 

By  the  addition  of  hot  oil  or  Russian  tallow,  a  mixture, 
with  lime  or  whiting  for  its  body,  can  be  made  to 
stand  rain  and  weather  on  outsides  ;  but  such  a  mixture 
would  be  unfit  for  fine  interior  work.  Any  absorbent 
tempera  paint  is  certainly  preferable  to  oil  paint  for 
the  insides  of  public  buildings.  Tempera  absorbs  the 
atmospheric  moisture,  and  then  gives  it  up  again  ;  whilst 
with  oil  paint,  the  moisture  condenses  on  the  surface 
and  trickles  down  the  walls. 

Mixtures  of  distemper — that  is,  size  and  whiting — 
with  turps,  hot  linseed  oil,  Russian  tallow,  etc.,  are 
occasionally  made  to  spread  on  outside  work,  and  are 
successful  so  far  as  they  contain  the  oil  or  grease  which 
repels  the  water.  For  inside  work,  a  washable  tempera 
is  impossible  from  ordinary  ingredients,  and  without 
chemical  processes.  There  are,  however,  a  few  so- 
called  washable  distempers  in  the  market  which,  as 
washable  paints,  are  fairly  successful ;  but  since  they 
are  prepared  from  a  basis  other  than  whiting,  they  lack 
considerably  the  opacity  that  can  be  obtained  with  one 
coat  of  good  plain  distemper. 

In  oil  and  distemper  painting  there  is  in  each  one  sub- 
stance which  ranks  for  binding  purposes  above  all  others. 
This  position  is  held  for  oil  paint  by  the  ordinary  white, 
lead^  and  other  similar  carbonates  ;  but  these  latter  are 
seldom  required  for  ordinary  house-painting.  For  tempera 
painting,  we  are  provided  with  an  unlimited  store  of 
limestone  and  chalk,  from  which  the  ordinary  lime, 
oxide  of  calcium^  of  building  processes,  and  a  further 
preparation  known  as  carbonate  of  lime,  are  obtained. 

In  distemper  painting — more  frequently  called 
colouring — the  base  generally  used  for  all  the  tints  is 
finest  whiting. 

Whiting — or  whitening  as  it  is  sometimes  termed — is 
the  most  ordinary  and  also  the  most  useful  form  of  car- 
bonate of  lime.  Paris  white  and  gilders'  whiting  are  the 
best  qualities  of  the  same  article,  and  differ  from  the 
cheap  kind  in  fineness  of  substance  and  purity  of  white. 
Paris  white  is  in  great  demand  in  the  United  States  of 


94  House  Decoration, 

America,  where,  under  the  term  of  kalsomining,  the 
practice  of  whitewashing  is  carried  to  perfection.  Re- 
peated grinding  and  washing  are  resorted  to  in  order  to 
convert  the  chalk  into  the  condition  of  whiting,  the  pro- 
cesses being  worked  to  extremes  when  the  finer  qualities 
are  required. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  Paris  white  is  usually  sold 
in  a  loose  or  powdered  form,  whilst  gilders'  whiting  is 
commonly  dried  in  the  form  of  knobs,  each  weighing 
3  or  4  lbs.,  and  being,  therefore,  about  twice  the  size  of 
the  knobs  sold  at  oil-shops. 

Whiting  that  has  been  properly  washed  and  prepared 
will  easily  break  in  the  hands  by  pressure  of  the  fingers ; 
and  there  should  also  be  a  total  absence  of  grit  and  sand. 
Not  to  crumble  up  and  dissolve  easily  is  evidence  that 
insufficient  washing  has  left  objectionable  traces  of  a 
binding  nature,  common  to  lime.  Upon  the  purity  of 
the  whiting  much  of  the  permanency  and  beauty  of  the 
tints  of  distemper  will  depend.  Whiting  which  contains 
grit  is  entirely  useless  for  the  preparation  of  surfaces  for 
water-gilding ;  whilst  if  present  to  any  extent  in  dis- 
temper, grit  will  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and 
will  often  carry  with  it  the  bulk  of  any  powdered  pig- 
ment used  for  tinting  or  staining  purposes. 

Until  recent  years,  the  ordinary  glue  of  commerce 
was  the  only  serviceable  "  binder,"  or  water-vehicle,  con- 
venient to  house-painters  for  making  distemper.  To 
the  present  day,  glue  is  still  largely  used  in  the  provinces 
and  places  remote  from  the  larger  trade  centres.  The 
usual  mode  of  preparation  is  to  soak  it  in  cold  water 
over  night,  and  then,  by  breaking  it  up  with  the  hand 
or  the  application  of  heat,  to  convert  it  into  a  liquid  or 
jelly  form,  when  it  is  ready  for  adding  to  the  whiting. 
The  advantage  of  thus  using  and  preparing  glue  lies  in 
being  able  to  stock  it  without  deterioration.  In  all  large 
towns,  glue  for  distemper  purposes  is  now  entirely  super- 
seded by  size — a  jelly  substance,  of  similar  source  and 
nature. 

Size^  or    Cltar-coUt  is    merely    liquid    glue,  beins 


Distemper  or  Tempera  Painting.         95 

generally  prepared  by  boiling  down  the  sinewy  and  horny 
parts  of  animals,  the  strongest  being  obtained  from  the 
oldest  animals.  These  substances  are  purified  with  lime 
and  the  gelatinous  matter  extracted  by  gradual  boiling, 
and  the  clarified  condition  of  this  extract  is  the  size. 
When  required  to  be  converted  into  glue,  this  liquid, 
after  the  greater  portion  of  the  water  has  been  evapo- 
rated, cools  into  a  very  strong  jelly.  It  is  then  divided 
into  blocks,  which  are  ultimately  converted  into  cakes  of 
hard  glue  by  a  double  process  of  drying  by  natural  and  ^ 
artificial  methods.  What  is  called  double  size  is  merely 
a  stronger  concoction,  obtained  by  boiling  it  down  to 
about  half  the  quantity.  When  used  by  itself  as  a 
priming,  or  first  coat,  to  fill  up  or  cover  over  the  surface 
of  a  porous  material  like  plaster,  it  is  called  clair-cole,  or 
clear-cole.  Size  is  also  mixed  with  whiting  and  colour- 
ing matters,  to  make  them  adhere  to  surfaces  without 
rubbing  off  as  readily  as  whitewash  does. 

Clear,  or  Gilders',  Size  is  made  by  simmering  parch- 
ment cuttings  in  a  vessel — preferably  with  an  enamelled 
inside — until  the  gelatinous  virtue  is  all  extracted.  It 
is  then  poured  off  in  its  liquid  state  and  strained  through 
fine  muslin,  and  when  cool,  is  almost  colourless.  Clear 
=!ize  is  one  of  the  most  important  used  in  all  water-gild- 
ing processes  ;  knowledge  of  and  practice  in  it  are  very 
essential  to  such  work.  Gilders  who  are  masters  of 
every  branch  of  the  craft,  and  who  f oUow  it  entirely  as 
their  trade,  always  prepare  their  own  clear  size.  It  is 
also  used  for  finishing  decorative  oil  gilding,  and  the 
decorator  should  also  know  how  to  prepare  it. 

Painters'  size  is  usually  sold  by  the  pound  weight,  or  in 
firkins  containing  about  28  lbs.  The  finest  and  whitest 
variety  is  known  as  Patent  Size,  which  for  purity  and 
strength  is  equal  to  any  produced.  Double  size  and 
extra  double  are  the  two  qualities  most  used  for  dis- 
temper, the  latter  being  the  stronger ;  neither  of  these 
are  to  be  compared  with  Young's  for  purity  and  trans- 
lucency,  their  darker  colour  being  similar  to  that  of 
^ize  prepared  from  ordinary  glue  of  good  quality. 


96  House  Decoration. 

These  jelly  sizes  are  put  into  a  vessel  and  dissolved 
by  heat  when  required  for  use,  a  little  water  being  first 
introduced  to  prevent  the  size  from  burning.  Size 
should  never  be  made  very  hot.  but  dissolved  sufficiently 
only  to  allow  of  its  being  thoroughly  incorporated  with 
the  whiting  or  other  pigment.  The  disadvantage  to  the 
jelly  form  is  its  liability  to  putrefy  and  decompose 
during  hot  weather.  For  this  reason  glue  is  often  substi- 
tuted in  the  provinces  and  districts  where  the  compara- 
tively small  demand  for  it  does  not  warrant  the  trader 
or  house-painter  keeping  it,  and  where  there  is  no 
factory-made  size  at  hand. 

At  the  present  time  every  glue  and  size  factory  makes 
a  glue  powder,  size  powder,  or  concentrated  size,  which  is 
usually  retailed  in  penny,  quarter-,  half-,  and  one-pound 
packets.  By  dissolving  this  powder  in  boiling  water, 
according  to  the  directions  sold  with  it,  a  good  binder  for 
distemper  work  is  provided  without  any  of  the  risks  or 
trouble  attending  the  use  of  glue  or  the  storing  of  size. 

The  best  method  of  mixing  distemper  is  to  first  put 
some  cold  water  into  the  vessel  in  which  the  distemper 
is  to  be  made,  and  then  add  the  whiting  into  it,  break- 
ing up  the  lumps,  so  that,  without  any  unnecessary 
delay,  the  whiting  may  be  thoroughly  dissolved.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  water,  sufficient 
only  to  cover  the  whiting  being  required.  When  pro- 
perly slacked  and  settled  down,  the  surplus  water 
must  be  gently  poured  off.  A  careful  worker  will  then 
thoroughly  stir  the  whiting  to  ensure  it  being  all  pro- 
perly dissolved  :  this  is  best  done  by  the  bare  hand  and 
arm. 

Then  gently  pour  in  the  warm  size,  and  continue  to 
stir  and  mix  until  the  size  and  whiting  become  thoroughly 
worked  together.  This  mixture  should  now  be  set  aside 
in  a  cool  place,  when  it  will  gradually  assume  a  white 
jelly  form.  The  amount  of  melted  size  used  would  be 
'  about  half  the  bulk  of  the  soaked  whiting ;  but  should 
there  be  an  excess  of  water  in  the  latter,  it  often 
80  dilutes  the  size  that  there  is  not  sufficient  strength 


Distemper  or   Tempera  Painting,         97 

contained  in  the  whole  mixture  to  gelatinise  or  set  it. 
To  prevent  a  yellow  shade  in  the  whiting,  grind  a  little 
indigo  or  ivory  black  in  some  water,  and  mix  before 
adding  the  size,  which  has  been  previously  warmed,  well 
stirring  the  whole  until  properly  mixed.  Strain  while 
warm,  to  jremove  impurities,  and  thoroughly  mix  the 
colour.  Distemper  should  at  all  times  be  worked  cold. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  have  much  pigment  in  it, 
otherwise  the  distemper  will  crack  and  fall  off  in  scales  \ 
as  it  is  not  only  the  strength  of  the  size  that  causes  the 
work  to  crack,  but  also  the  body  of  colour. 

Some  readers  may  feel  that  this  simple  pail  of  white- 
wash requires  more  care  in  its  preparation  than  was 
anticipated,  but  good  work  cannot  be  done  with 
materials  improperly  prepared. 

Very  often  in  the  very  common  kinds  of  white- 
washing, on  country  cottage  ceilings,  etc.,  t£ie  house- 
wife brushes  over  the  surface  whiting  and  water  only, 
just  as  lime  is  used  for  white  liming.  Solid  appear- 
ance is  not  produced  with  such  material ;  and  although 
for  ceiling  work  less  proportion  of  size  than  that  given 
above  may  be  used,  jelly  distemper  works  easier,  pre- 
sents a  more  solid  appearance,  and  is  manipulated  with 
less  splashing  and  mess  than  is  usual  with  the  watery 
wash  often  used  even  by  others  than  country  house-wives. 

Another  method  of  mixing  whiting  for  whitewash  is 
in  the  proportion  of  6  lbs.  of  whiting  to  1  qt.  of  double 
size,  the  whiting  to  be  just  covered  with  cold  water  for 
six  hours,  then  mixed  with  the  hot  "size,  and  left  in  a  cool 
place  until  it  becomes  like  jelly,  in  which  condition  it 
is  ready  to  be  diluted  with  cold  water,  and  used.  It 
will  take  1  lb.  of  this  jelly  to  cover  every  six  superficial 
yards. 

Excess  of  size  or  glue  in  water  colour  will  often  give 
an  "  egg-sheli "  gloss,  but  the  amount  of  size  there  must 
then  be  in  the  distemper  will  probably  cause  it  to  crack  and 
peel  off.  Unless  used  upon  walls,  distemper  is  best  with 
only  sufficient  size  to  bind  it,  and  not  to  show  any  gloss 
whatever.    The  dead  surface  of  distemper  is  one   of 

G 


/ 


98  House  Decoration. 

its  chief  attractions.  In  former  times,  walls  were  some- 
times distempered,  and  then  polished  with  French  chalk  ; 
but  this  is  very  seldom  done  now.  The  satin  surface  of 
some  wall  papers  is  obtained  by  such  a  process.  Smooth- 
ness will  depend  upon  the  preparation  of  the  distemper, 
the  condition  of  the  surface  to  be  covered,  and  the  skiU 
in  spreading  it. 

Those  who  have  studied  the  chapter  on  mixing  oil 
paints  wdll  have  in  their  mind  how  far  the  condition  of 
the  surface  to  be  covered  affects  proportions  of  material 
ased  in  that  process.  The  same  principle  underlies  both 
oil  and  distemper  work ;  and  the  success  of  the  latter 
will  greatly  depend  upon  the  preparation  of  the  plaster 
surface.  No  break  must  be  made  in  a  piece  of  contin- 
uous work  or  flank  of  wall,  but  every  surface  complete 
in  itself,  like  a  ceiling-flat  or  side  of  a  room,  must  be 
commenced  and  expeditiously  completed  without  join  or 
miss.  A  uniformity  of  absorption  must  therefore  be 
ensured  by  previously  coating  the  plaster  with  a  mixture 
which,  like  the  first  thin  coat's  of  paint  in  oil  painting, 
shall  stop  the  unequal  suction  common  to  all  bare  plaster- 
work. 

For  this  first  coat,  the  most  convenient  preparation  is 
strong  jelly  size  diluted  with  about  one-third  of  water, 
and  just  sufficient  whiting  to  colour,  without  practically 
thickening,  the  size.  This  is  termed  clear-coat,  or  clear- 
cole, and  it  should  be  prepared  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  the  finishing  distemper  ;  and  the  addition  of 
a  little  alum  is  desirable.  The  hard.ening  action  of  alum 
on  substances  of  a  gelatinous  nature  is  well  known  ;  but 
the  introduction  of  the  alum  is  not  obligatory.  Strong 
size  and  whiting  alone  will  suffice ;  and  this  should  be 
applied  warm,  as  soon  as  mixed,  for  when  cold  it  would 
be  too  stiff  to  spread  with  the  brush.  No  precautions 
concerning  joins  and  streaks  are  required  when  using 
clear-cole,  since  there  is  not  sufficient  body  in  it  to  form 
an  appreciable  crust  upon  the  wall.  The  size  soaks  into 
the  face  of  the  wall,  and  when  dry,  is  ready  for  the 
finishing  coat. 


Distemper  or  Tempera  Painting,  99 

Occasionally,  pure  beeswax  can  be  added  to  distemper 
with  advantage  for  decorating  ceilings  in  tempera.  For 
painting  or  stencilling  ornament  upon,  it  forms  a  harder 
surface,  without  risk  of  peeling  off.  It  can  scarcely  be 
termed  washable,  but  may  be  made  to  stand  a  consider- 
able amount  of  wear  and  cleaning.  The  mode  of  pre- 
paration is  to  dissolve  purs  yellow  beeswax  in  oil  of 
turpentine  by  heat,  and  to  have  the  whiting  ready  for 
mixing  with  strong  and  very  hot  size,  and  well  mixed 
together  before  stirring  in  the  melted  wax.  This  pre- 
paration of  wax  is  not  commended  to  novices,  as  the 
professional  hand  is  needed  to  work  it  successfully. 

About  4  ozs.  of  genuine  yellow  beeswax,  having  been 
scraped  into  shreds  and  dissolved  in  oil  of  turpentine, 
should  be  added  to  a  half-bucketful  of  distemper,  in 
order  to  make  a  tempera  paint  for  good  decorative 
work ;  or  for  a  fair-sized  pailful  the  proportions  would 
be  \  lb.  pure  beeswax  in  1^  pints  of  turps,  the  two  well 
mixed,  and  then  added  as  directed. 

In  America,  wall  colouring  in  distemper  is  called 
kalsomining,  and  it  is  best  done  when  the  walls  are 
neither  very  cold  nor  very  hot.  But  it  ma,y  be  done 
during  the  winter,  so  long  as  the  walls  do  not  freeze. 
There  are  a  good  many  preparations  made  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  sold  under  various  names.  White  kalsomine 
may  be  prepared  in  the  following  manner  : — 10  lbs.  best 
whiting,  1^  lbs.  white  glue,  \  lb.  alum,  and  a  little  ultra- 
marine blue.  Put  the  glue  to  soak  for  twelve  hours  in 
cold  water,  then  set  it  on  the  fire,  and  stir  until  dissolved. 
Put  about  half-a-gallon  of  cold  water  over  the  whiting, 
and  when  dissolved,  add  the  glue,  the  blue,  and  the 
alum,  which  must  have  been  dissolved  in  hot  water. 
Stir  this  mixture  well,  and  strain  through  a  sieve.  This 
may  be  used  while  hot  for  first  coating,  but  the 
other  coats  must  be  cold.  If  it  works  too  stiff,  a  little 
soap  will  help.  All  colours  and  shades  are  made  by 
adding  the  dry  colours. 

Before  kalsomining,  cracks  and  nail  holes  should 
be  filled  with  plaster  of  Paris.     Mix  this  with  flour  paste. 


TOO  House  Decoration, 

and  it  will  not  dry  so  quickly.  Use  a  good  brush,  and 
work  as  quickly  as  possible,  to  avoid  laps,  to  make  a 
good  job  of  kalsomining.  A  neat  stencil  border  run 
around  the  top  of  the  wall  makes  a  nice  finish. 

Another  recipe  is  : — 15  lbs.  best  whiting  or  French 
kalsomine,  dissolved  in  cold  water,  and  1  lb.  of  fine  white 
glue  dissolved  in  water.  Apply  cold.  For  very  fine  white 
work,  zinc  white  is  preferred  to  whiting,  but  as  the  ex- 
pense is  so  much  greater  it  is  seldom  used.  Half -an- 
ounce  of  ultramarine  blue  added  to  the  above  gives  a 
clearer  white.  Pigments  may  be  added  to  colour  to  suit, 
but  all  colouring  must  be  put  in  before  adding  the  glue. 

Lines  of  colour  may  be  run  with  lining-fitch  and 
straight-edge  upon  paper,  distemper,  or  such-like 
absorbent  surface  either  as  size  colour  or  turps  colour. 
For  size  colour,  mix  best  Venetian  red  powder  with 
water  to  a  stiff  paste,  then  thin  for  use  with  strong  jelly 
size.  This  must  be  kept  warm  in  using,  as  you  may 
surmise.  For  turps  colour,  use  Japan  gold  size  to  make 
the  dry  pigment  into  batter  consistency,  then  thin  for 
use  with  turps.  Both  of  these  should  work  well  and  stand 
sizing. 

In  all  preparations  of  paint  the  purity  of  tints  of 
colours  is  very  much  dependent  upon  that  of  the  body 
pigment  used.  As  good  whiting  is  more  white  and 
brilliant  than  white  lead,  it  follows  that  purer  and  more 
delicate  tints  may  be  obtained  in  distemper  work  than 
is  possible  with  substances  more  affected  by  the  atmo- 
sphere, as  are  the  carbonates  of  lead  and  oils  which 
develop  yellowness. 

If  gilders'  or  Paris  whiting  be  used  with  dear  or 
Young's  patent  size,  the  purity  of  distemper  tints  is  very 
much  in  advance  of  those  of  white  lead  paint,  so  that  it 
is  impossible  to  match  them  in  oil  colour.  In  choosing 
the  paint  to  suit  the  colour  of  the  paper  of  a  room, 
this  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind,  and  allowance  made 
for  it.  Exact  matching  in  oil  and  water  is  not  necessary. 
Colours  should  always  be  judged  by  the  general  or 
dominant  effect,  and  not  by  any  small  portion. 


Distemper  or  Tempera  Painting,       ioi 

The  pigment  used  for  tinting,  or  colouring,  distemper, 
whether  ground  in  water  or  in  powder  form,  should  be 
mixed  with  the  whiting  before  the  size  is  added.  It 
cannot  otherwisa  be  properly  worked  into  the  whiting, 
and  after  the  size  is  added  the  distemper  should  be 
strained  through  a  thin  gauze  or  hair  sieve.  Straining 
it  after  getting  set  will  give  it  in  a  condition  very  agree- 
able for  spreading. 

The  nature  of  distemper  is  such  that  its  tints  are 
very  much  lighter  when  dry  than  when  first  spread. 
This  is  due  to  the  action  of  light  upon  the  water  used 
for  mixing.  The  evaporation  of  this  causes  the  pig- 
ment to  convey  a  less  bright  sensation  than  it  did  before 
becoming  dry. 

In  mixing  distemper  tints,  accustom  the  mind  to 
judging  the  effect  of  a  colour  when  dry.  Avoid  all  plain 
tints  of  white  with  pure  red,  blue,  yellow,  green,  etc. 
Make  up  the  various  tones  of  colour  in  the  pots  ;  then 
put  a  little  red  into  green,  green  into  red,  etc.,  until 
they  are  sufficiently  soft  and  neutralised  to  give  a 
restful  and  harmonious  combined  effect. 

All  the  pigments  used  for  distemper  paint  should 
either  be  ground  very  fine  or  should  be  washed  so  as  to 
ensure  the  most  minute  division  of  their  particles.  Two 
coats,  and  sometimes  more,  of  any  tint  will  be  required  to 
cover  plaster  well,  and  to  dry  out  with  absolute  uniformity. 

The  pigments  should  be  mixed  separately,  and  should 
be  carefully  added  to  the  white  body.  Powder  pigment 
should  never  be  added  dry  to  the  body  white.  Sufficient 
material  of  any  particular  tint  as  may  be  required  for 
one  room  or  job  should  be  compounded  at  once,  to  avoid 
the  trouble  of  matching.  If  only  a  small  quantity  of 
any  additional  pigment  is  required,  it  should  be  well 
ground  on  a  slab,  and  taken  on  the  point  of  the  palette- 
knife  or  at  the  end  of  a  stick,  and  thus  mixed  with  the 
general  mass. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  mixing  pigments,  for 
some,  such  as  Prussian  blue,  etc.,  are  so  strong  that  a 
very  little  will  produce  the  desired  effect ;  and  if  they 


102  House  Decoration. 

are  used  in  excess,  it  becomes  necessary  to  add  more  and 
more  white,  a  greater  quantity  of  the  material  required 
is  compounded  and  waste  results. 

The  pigments  most  suitable  for  staining  whiting  will 
be  gathered  from  the  chapter  on  pigments,  but  a  few  of 
the  most  useful  and  ordinary  are  appended  : — For  warm 
red  tints,  Venetian  and  Indian  reds  and  burnt  sienna  ; 
for  buffs,  cinnamons,  etc.,  the  natural  ochres,  umbers, 
and  siennas  with  the  above  reds.  Lime  blue  and  so- 
called  ultramarine  make  blue  and  grey,  with  red  added 
for  French  grey,  and  blue -black  or  Paris  black  where  the 
neutral  is  required.  Greens  are  seldom  required  bright, 
and  mixtures  of  raw  sienna  or  ochre  with  lime  blue, 
indigo,  or  ultramarine  are  most  reliable.  All  dark-colour 
distemper  paints,  such  as  purple-brown,  for  instance, 
seldom  require  whiting,  only  the  pigment  prepared  in  a, 
similar  manner.  All  mixtures  should  be  tested  and 
dried  on  paper  to  judge  the  colour ;  and  when  this  ia 
correct,  add  the  hot  size. 

In  order  to  produce  an  absolutely  level  tint  in  dis- 
temper, great  care  should  be  exercised  in  carrying  on  the 
work.  Whilst  the  colour  is  being  laid  on,  the  windows 
and  doors  should  be  closed  and  all  draughts  prevented,  so 
that  the  wash  may  not  dry  too  quickly,  in  which  case  the 
brush  drags,  and  all  piecings  or  brush  marks  will  show 
when  quite  dry ;  but  the  moment  the  work  is  finished  al! 
windows  and  doors  are  to  be  opened,  in  order  to  afford 
free  ingress  to  the  fresh  air,  for  as  soon  as  the  whole 
of  the  colour  is  laid  on,  the  sooner  it  dries  the  better. 

In  distempering  walls  where  a  good  job  is  required, 
the  stopping  and  clear-coling  must  be  carefully  performed 
and  thoroughly  dry  before  the  finishing  coat,  in  a  nicely 
jellied  condition,  is  spread.  In  covering  a  wall  of  or- 
dinary height,  two  workers  are  necessary,  one  standing 
on  the  scaffold  and  taking  from  the  top,  half-way  down, 
the  other  working  beneath  him.  It  is  a  good  plan  for 
the  bottom  man  to  start  spreading  and  keep  slightly 
ahead  of  his  fellow,  who  then,  in  hia  laying  off  strokes* 
will  cover  all  traces  of  the  join. 


I03 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

WHITEWASHING  AND  DECORATING  A  CEILING. 

The  greater  number  of  plaster  ceilings  are  j&nislied  with 
distemper  paint,  which,  besides  the  advantages  of 
cheapness  and  of  covering  in  one  coat,  where  with  oil 
paint  four  would  be  required,  shows  superiority  in 
other  respects. 

In  places  where  people  congregate,  the  moisture  in 
the  atmosphere — unless  the  ventilation  of  the  apartment 
is  exceptionally  good — will  condense  upon  a  painted 
surface  and  run  down  the  walls.  When  distemper  is 
used  in  such  situations,  no  unpleasant  effect  is  seen, 
since  the  distempered  surface  will  absorb  the  moisture 
for  the  time  being,  and  ultimately  give  it  forth  again 
without  any  detriment  to  its  colour. 

This  property  of  distemper  also  indicates  the  necessity 
of  removing,  with  brushes  and  water,  all  old  colouring 
and  whitewash  from  ceiling  and  walls,  instead  of  which, 
the  dirty  unhealthy  coating  is  in  some  cases  coated  over 
with  size.  The  size  binds  the  dirt,  and  the  opacity  of 
distemper  paint  does  not  show  the  dirt  through  ;  never- 
theless, it  is  a  practice  to  be  condemned  by  all  who 
desire  sanitary  homes.  -  Doubtless  this  labour-saving 
plan  would  be  used  even  to  a  more  general  extent  but 
for  the  fact  that  continuous  coats  of  distemper  and  size 
soon  discover  the  bad  worker  by  the  surface  cracking  and 
peeling  off,  owing  to  excess  of  size. 

When  about  to  whitewash  a  ceiling,  the  first  thing  is 
to  have  the  room  as  clear  as  possible,  and  to  protect  the 
wall-paper  tack  a  width  of  old  newspapers  round  the 
walls  half  an  inch  from  the  ceiling.  The  best  way  to 
••/ick  the  paper  up  is  to  cut  some  ordinary  corks  into 


ro4  House  Decoration. 

slices  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  to  drive  the 
tacks  through  these  into  the  plaster. 

Next  with  hot  water  thoroughly  wash  off  from  the 
ceiling  the  old  distemper  or  whiting,  being  careful  to 
wash  only  the  ceiling,  and  not  to  let  the  dirty  water 
run  down  the  wall-paper  nor  splash  about. 

It  is  important  to  have  a  scaffold-board  at  such  a 
height  from  the  floor  that  the  ceiling  can  be  comfortably 
reached.  Have  at  each  end  of  the  board  a  pair  of  steps, 
though  two  chairs  will  answer  the  purpose  ;  or  even  a 
table  alone  will  serve.  Now,  with  a  pail  of  clean  hot 
water,  a  distemper  brush,  a  large  piece  of  sponge,  and  a 
piece  of  coarse  canvas  on  a  board  or  table  beside  you, 
start  at  one  corner  of  the  room  to  lay  or  soak  in  a  patch 
with  water,  gently  stirring  the  old  distemper  with  the 
brush.  Get  the  old  distemper  thoroughly  soaked,  then 
wash  it  off  with  the  canvas,  finishing  with  the  sponge, 
frequently  rinsed  in  water.  This  is  to  get  rid  of  every 
trace  of  the  old  distemper  or  whitewash.  This  is  a  most 
important  process,  which  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted 
upon.  Neglect  in  this  part  of  the  work  will  result  in  a 
dirty  or  uneven  appearance  in  the  finished  ceiling.  Old 
lime  is  diflficult  to  remove,  but  all  of  it  must  be  got  off. 
If  only  the  loose  portions  are  removed,  even  the  most 
skilful  application  of  distemper  cannot  hide  the  patches. 
They  will  be  either  of  a  different  colour  or  else  will  show 
the  shade  from  a  different  level  of  surface.  Do  not  wet 
the  surface  more  than  necessary,  and  frequently  change 
the  water  as  it  gets  dirty.  Sometimes  the  distemper  is 
especially  diflBcult  to  get  off  on  account  of  the  original 
coat  having  been  bound  down,  as  it  is  called,  instead 
of  having  been  washed  off  before  it  was  last  re-whitened, 
which  is  very  often  done  for  the  sake  of  cheapness.  Two- 
pennyworth  of  liquid  ammonia  in  a  separate  pail  half 
full  of  water  will  greatly  assist  when  soaking  bound 
distemper.  Avoid  touching  the  wall-paper  with  the 
brush,  but  finish  the  last  inch  or  so  of  margin  with  the 
sponge  or  canvas. 

When  the  surface  of  the  ceiling  has  dried,  any  rough 


Whitewashing  AND  Decorating  A  Ceiling    105 

patches  there  may  be  should  be  scraped  or  rubbed 
smooth. 

If  there  are  any  cracks  in  the  ceiling,  run  the  point 
of  a  small  trowel  along  them,  to  clear  out  any  loose  bits, 
dust,  etc.,  with  a  sash-tool  wet  the  parts  of  the  ceiling 
where  the  cracks  are,  and  then,  using  a  stopping-knife, 
fill  them  in  with  plaster  of  Paris  mixed  with  water  in 
which  a  little  alum  has  been  dissolved.  A  little  whiting 
mixed  with  the  plaster  will  keep  it  from  setting  too 
quickly. 

Or  mix  fine  plaster  of  Paris  with  glue  size,  and  fill 
up  holes  and  cracks,  and  when  dry  level  with  a  knife  or 
coarse  glass-paper.  Whiting  mixed  with  glue  water 
would  also  be  suitable.  Use  a  square  piece  of  wood  to 
mix  the  cement  upon,  and  nail  a  handle  to  the  other  side. 

If  the  cracks  are  at  all  bad,  they  should  be  cut  out, 
the  face  of  the  plaster  on  each  side  cut  away  for  half  an 
inch,  and  the  gap  then  finished  to  a  level  surface  with 
plaster  laid  on  with  a  small  troweL  A  broad  thin  strip 
of  wood  with  a  bevelled  edge  is  very  useful  when 
stopping  plaster  walls,  for  in  trying  to  stop  a  crack  or 
hole  with  a  sharp  steel  stopping  knife,  the  surrounding 
face  of  the  plaster  may  be  badly  scratched,  which  is  only 
seen  when  the  job  is  finished.  ^ 

Repairing  should  be  done  to  new  ceilings  before  the 
clear-cole  is  applied,  and  to  old  ceilings  at  the  time  they 
are  washed  off— that  is,  when  the  old  coating  of  dirty 
distemper  is  removed  with  water  and  brushes. 

If  necessary,  when  dry,  the  ceiling  can  be  rubbed 
quite  smooth  with  glass-paper,  and  is  then  ready  for  re- 
distempering,  after  which,  if  carefully  done,  the  repaired 
cracks  will  be  invisible. 

If  there  are  stains  in  the  ceiling  that  cannot  be  re- 
moved by  washing,  the  stain  should  be  painted  white, 
in  flat  colour  or  paint  mixed  with  turpentine.  If  this 
has  to  be  done,  it  will  be  well  to  paint  also  the  filling 
with  which  the  cracks  have  been  stopped. 

Finally,  the  ceiling  should  be  rubbed  down  with  a 
dloth  previous  to  applying  the  colour. 


io6  House  Decoration. 

To  prepare  whitewash,  break  into  large  pieces  about 
four  balls  of  whiting,  and  put  them  into  a  pail,  and  just 
cover  the  material  with  water  :  let  it  stand  all  night.  In 
the  morning,  pour  off  all  water  that  will  run  away,  and 
thoroughly  mix  the  wet  whiting  by  hand  until  it  becomes 
a  thick  even  paste.  Add  about  half  an  egg-cupful  of 
dry  ultramarine  blue,  stirring  it  well  in  with  the  whiting. 
Next  put  2  lbs.  of  Young's  patent  size  in  a  saucepan  over 
the  fire,  with  only  just  sufficient  water  to  keep  it  from 
burning,  and  stirring  it  all  the  time,  taking  great  care 
that  it  neither  boils  nor  burns.  When  it  is  thoroughly 
dissolved,  pour  it  on  the  whiting,  and  mix  the  whole 
well  together.  The  proportion  of  size  is  about  one  tea- 
cupful  to  two  gallons  of  the  mixture.  If  a  perfectly 
white  wash  is  required,  potato  starch  may  be  used.  Now 
set  it  aside  in  a  cool  place  until  it  turns  to  a  jelly.  When 
it  is  quite  cold,  with  a  distemper  brush  rub  it  through  a 
coarse  piece  of  canvas  stretched  over  the  top  of  a  clean 
pail,  and  it  will  then  be  ready  for  use. 

Before  commencing  the  actual  whitewashing,  lightly 
rub  over  the  whole  of  the  ceiling  with  a  piece  of  fine 
glass-paper,  to  take  off  any  little  knots  or  brush-hairs 
left  by  the  clear-coling.  Then  dust  the  ceiling  before 
proceeding  to  whiten  it. 

In  laying  on  the  wash,  a  large  flat  brush  is  employed, 
and  if  this  is  not  over-charged  a  ceiling  or  wall  may 
with  a  certain  amount  of  care  be  white-  or  colour-washed 
with  little  or  no  splashing.  The  way  to  lay  the  distemper 
on  is  not  to  take  up  too  much  in  the  brush,  and  not  to 
flick  the  brush  at  the  end  of  each  stroke,  or  you  will 
splash  everything.  Work  the  brush  in  any  direction, 
but  be  sure  that  every  part  of  the  ceiling  is  covered  with 
distemper,  taking  care  to  keep  the  edges  of  the  patches 
going— that  is,  do  not  let  any  edge  get  dry  before  you 
come  to  it  again.  To  do  this,  it  is  essential  to  have  a 
scaffold  that  is  easily  movable  from  one  end  of  the  room 
to  the  other.  The  whitening  must  be  done  very  expedi- 
tiously ;  and  any  ceiling  over  14  ft.  square  should  not  be 
attempted  single-handed  without  some  previous  practica 


Whitewashing  and  Decorating  a  Ceiling,   107 

Ceilings  should  always  be  distempered  by  working 
SLWSbj  from  the  light.  Two  men  are  required  to  do  a 
good-sized  ceiling- flat ;  they  should  start  at  the  window 
end,  and,  keeping  their  work  in  one  general  line,  spread 
the  distemper  from  the  end  as  far  towards  the  centre  d,s 
they  can  both  conveniently  reach.  The  scaffold  is  then 
brought  forward  and  another  shift  covered,  and  so  on 
until  the  whole  ceiling  is  finished.  The  solvent  used  for 
distemper  work  being  water,  it  will  be  seen  that  extreme 
heat  or  a  draught  of  air,  such  as  will  evaporate  the  water, 
is  to  be  avoided  during  the  process ;  but  so  soon  as  a 
ceiling  is  completed,  the  object  is  to  dry  it  off  as  quickly 
as  possible  ;  and  hence  it  is  well  to  open  door  and  window, 
to  create  the  draught  we  previously  had  to  avoid. 

Properly  executed  distempering  should  have  a  level, 
but  not  perfectly  smooth,  surface,  which  should  show 
no  joins  or  coarse  brush-markings,  and  should  have  a 
perfectly  dead  appearance,  be  solid  and  uniform  through- 
out, and  should  not  rub  off  by  ordinary  wear  or  leaning 
against. 

Distemper  of  any  kind  should  never  be  spread  over 
old  or  dirty  stuff ;  these  should  be  first  washed  off.  An 
expert  will  not  flap  his  brush  in  working  well-made  dis- 
temper ;  he  will  use  the  tip  of  his  brush  only,  and  make 
very  little  noise.  Whitewash  or  any  distemper  can  be 
laid  on  in  any  direction  from  the  outer  or  working  edge. 
Splashes  result  from  the  use  of  watery  wash  and  want 
of  experience  in  working ;  and  they  are  avoided  by  the 
use  oi  jellied  stuff. 

A  distemper  brush  should  be  worn  off  a  trifle  before 
being  used  to  whiten  a  ceiling.  The  work  of  washing  off 
a  ceiling  will  be  sufficient  to  wear  down,  a  new  brush  to 
a  fit  condition.  After  the  brush  is  done  with,  wash  it 
out  thoroughly  and  lay  it  by  ;  before  attempting  to  use 
it,  soak  it  in  water,  or  the  hairs  may  fall  out,  through 
it  being  too  dry.  This  last  caution  applies  to  nearly  all 
brushes  used  in  house  decorating. 

If  there  is  a  delicate  ornamental  cornice  in  the  room 
that  cannot  be  got  at  with  the  ordinary  distefmper  brush, 


io8  House  Decoration, 

described  on  p.  65,  a  smaller  brush,  called  a  distempei 
tool,  is  used  both  for  the  washing  off  and  whitening. 
In  the  whitening,  push  this  brush  up  into  the  ornamented 
parts  as  you  would  use  a  stencil  brush  ;  but  it  does  not 
much  matter  how  the  distemper  is  laid  so  long  as  it 
is  put  on  evenly,  and  aU  the  surface  covered. 

There  appears  to  be  an  idea  that  a  new  ceiling  re- 
quires some  special  treatment  before  it  is  whitened  ;  but 
this  is  not  so.  Providing  that  the  ceiling  has  been  left 
by  the  plasterer  in  a  proper  condition,  it  is  a  more  simple 
job  than  whitening  an  old  one,  on  account  of  there 
being  no  washing-off  or  making-good  to  do.  The  most 
ordinary  cause  of  failure  is  that  the  ceilings  are  not 
thoroughly  dry  before  the  whitewash  is  put  on.  If  there 
is  the  least  sign  of  sweating  or  moisture  on  the  ceiling, 
it  may  be  taken  to  indicate  that  the  ceiling  is  not  dry ; 
and  if  this  is  so,  no  amount  of  care  in  making  or  putting 
on  the  whitewash  will  make  the  ceiling  white.  Another 
cause  of  failure  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  some  people 
do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  clear-cole  a  new  ceiling. 
This  is  also  a  mistake,  for  the  clear- cole  stops  absorption, 
and  if  there  is  a  little  whiting  in  it,  it  helps  to  cover, 
and,  moreover,  makes  the  distempering  a  much  easier 
job,  as  it  prevents  it  dragging,  and,  to  use  a  painter's 
term,  the  distemper  spreads  like  butter.  The  addition 
of  a  little  alum  is  also  an  improvement  to  the  clear- 
cole. But  the  advantages  of  using  the  jellied  prepara- 
tion cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  users  of 
distemper. 

To  Distemper  a  Ceiling  in  Pink. — Obtain  a  pail  of 
well- washed  whiting,  1|  lbs.  best  concentrated  size, 
and  two-pennyworth  of  best  Venetian  red.  Put  the 
Venetian  red  into  a  tin  with  enough  water  to  cover  it, 
and  then  put  it  on  one  side  to  soak.  Now  get  two  clean 
pails  and  a  stirring-stick.  Break  open  the  size  packets 
and  tip  the  contents  into  one  of  the  pails.  Add  about 
three  pints  of  water  to  it,  and  stir  up  well  with  a  stick ; 
Stand  that  on  one  side.  Place  a  kettle  of  water  on  the 
fire,  m  some  boiling   water  will  shortly  be  required. 


Whitewashing  and  Decorating  a  Ceiling.    log 

Half  fill  another  pail  with  water,  and  holding  each  lump 
of  whiting  over  the  pail,  break  the  whiting  into  it  by 
gently  tapping  with  a  small  hammer.  There  are  now 
two  pails :  one  containing  size,  and  the  other  whiting. 
Pour  the  boiling  water  in  upon  the  size,  stirring  all  the 
time,  and  then  stand  the  mixture  on  one  side  to  cool. 
With  your  hand  now  thoroughly  break  up  the  whiting 
in  the  other  pail.  It  ought  to  be  made  of  the  consistency 
of  thin  glazing  putty.  Put  a  little  of  it  on  a  piece  of 
paper,  to  compare  the  coloured  wash  with  when  tinting. 
The  Venetian  red,  which  ought  to  be  well  soaked,  can 
now  be  added  to  the  whiting  in  small  quantities,  and 
testing  the  result  every  time  by  comparing  with  the 
whiting  placed  on  the  paper.  If  doubtful  as  to  -ivhether 
the  correct  tint  is  obtained,  dry  a  little  of  the  wash  on  a 
piece  of  paper  in  front  of  the  fire,  keeping  the  dis- 
tempered side  away  from  and  the  clean  side  towards 
the  fire.  Place  the  paper  on  your  ceiling,  and  fix  it  there 
with  a  pin.  Go  out  and  have  a  look  at  the  grass,  or 
anything  green,  for  a  minute  or  two.  Come  back  and 
quickly  look  at  the  sample  colour,  and  decide  whether  it 
suits.  When  the  tint  has  been  obtained,  add  the  size, 
which  ought  to  be  cool,  but  not  cold,  by  this  time,  and 
stir  well  with  your  hand.  It  will  become  very  stiff  for 
a  minute  or  two,  so  that  you  will  hardly  be  able  to  stir 
it.  Add  more  size  to  it  until  in  appearance  it  becomes 
like  good  oil  paint,  then  strain  it  carefully  into  another 
clean  pail.  Return  about  a  quart  of  it  into  the  first  pail, 
and  add  the  rest  of  the  size  to  this,  which  ought  to  make 
a  very  thin  and  strong  mixture.  Now  add  to  this  also 
about  a  tablespoonful  of  ground  alum ;  stir  well,  and 
this  is  now  "  clear-cole." 

To  the  pail  of  distemper  gently  pour  one  cupful  of 
cold  water  on  top,  so  as  to  prevent  a  skin  from  coming 
on  as  it  chills.  Cover  it  over,  and  put  it  away  in  the 
cool  till  chilled — which  will  be  on  the  next  day,  most 
likely.  If  the  ceiling  be  dry,  go  over  it  with  the  clear- 
cole, so  that  it  will  be  dry  for  the  distemper  next  morn- 
ing.    Get  someone  to  help  you ;  do  not  attempt  it  b^y 


no 


House  Decoration. 


yourself.  Begin  nearest  to  the  light,  and  work  from  it, 
covering  centre  ornament  first,  bed  of  ceiling  next,  and 
cornice  last.  Coat  the  bed  in  strips  2  ft.  in  width,  and 
when  a  shift  is  made,  go  along  the  edge  of  the  strip  of 
distemper  last  put  on,  and  soften  well  into  it.  If  the  day 
be  fine,  throw  open  your  windows  when  finished. 

Any  colour  can  be  obtained  by  first  preparing  a  wash 
as  for  ordinary  whitewashing,  and  then  mixing  in  colour- 
ing matter  until  the  desired  tint  is  obtained.  For  pink, 
use  rose  pink ;  for  salmon,  Venetian  red  ;  for  lilac,  a 


Fig.  56. — Ceiling  divided  into  four  simple  Panels. 

little  indigo  and  rose  pink  ;  for  grey,  lamp-black ;  for 
French  grey,  Prussian  blue  and  lake  ;  for  blue,  Prussian 
blue,  indigo,  or  cobalt;  for  green,  emerald  green;  for 
bufi",  yellow  ochre;  for  drab,  burnt  or  raw  umber.  A 
beginner  should  mix  a  small  quantity  at  first,  and  api*,ly 
a  patch,  and  when  it  is  dry  an  estimate  can  be  made  of 
the  effect.     These  colours  usually  dry  lighter. 

To  thoroughly  clean  a  Eoom.—'E.Yerj  particle  of  old 
paper  should  be  stripped  off,  and  everything  washed 
off  the  walls  with  hot  soda-water  until  the  plaster  is 
left  quite  clean.  If  there  are  vermin  confined  to  certain 
spots,  saturate  the  parts  well  with  carbolic  acid ;  or 
petroleum  is  useful.    If  general,  give  the  walls— after  all 


Whitewashing  and  Decorating  a  Ceiling,    hi 


holes  and  crevices  are  stopped  with  plaster  of  Paris — a 
coat  of  strong  patent  or  glue  size  with  some  carbolic 
acid  or  turpentine  in  it  (about  1  gill  to  1  gallon  of  size). 

In  the  majority  of  houses  the  ceiling  presents  a  plain 
flat  expanse  of  white,  without  anything  to  relieve  its 
monotony ;  sometimes  a  cornice  is  run  round  the  room, 
which  improves  it  a  little,  but  in  very  few  cases  is  any- 
thing done  to  improve  the  remaining  portion  of  the 


Fig.  57. — Ceiling  with  Circular  Centre. 

ceiling.  The  following  pages  show  how,  by  a  very  little 
extra  expenditure,  the  appearance  of  the  ceiling  may  be 
greatly  improved. 

After  the  ceiling  is  whitewashed  and  dry,  with  a 
chalk  line  make  a  mark  6  in.  from  the  cornice  or  walls, 
and  get  some  narrow  wall-paper  bordering  of  suitable 
colour,  and  paste  it  on  to  the  chalk  lines,  putting  corner 
pieces  at  the  angles  ;  the  bordering  should  be  1  in.  or 
\\  in.  wide,  and  should  be  put  on  quite  straight.  If 
desired,  the  space  between  the  bordering  and  cornice 
may  be  tinted. 


112  House  Decoration. 

Or  instead  of  using  the  bordering,  colour  a  margin 
6  in.  wide  all  round  the  ceiling,  and  at  a  distance  of  1  in. 
or  1^  in.  from  this  paint  a  line  of  chocolate  \  in.  or  \  in. 
wide  all  round,  and  stencil  an  ornamental  pattern  at  each 
angle.  The  edge  of  the  coloured  margin  should  be  kept 
perfectly  straight,  and  the  chocolate  lines  should  be 
painted  to  a  rule  or  straight-edge  held  against  the 
ceiling. 

If  there  be  a  cornice,  it  should  have  been  washed,  the 


Fig.  58. — Ceiling  with  Octagonal  Centre. 

cracks  filled  up,  and  whitewashed  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  ceiling.  The  cove,  or  large  hollow,  may  be  tinted 
the  same  colour  as  the  margin  on  the  ceiling,  but  the 
other  members  of  the  cornice  will  look  better  white,  as 
when  tinted  it  gives  the  cornice  a  heavy  appearance. 

If  the  ceiling  is  large,  it  may  be  divided  into  four 
panels,  as  shown  in  Fig.  56,  the  shaded  part  representing 
the  colour.  The  width  of  the  margins  may  also  be  in- 
creased in  a  large  ceiling. 

Fig.  57  shows  another  method  of  dividing  a  ceiling 
into  panels,  a  circular  margin  being  formed  in  the  centre, 
round  the  chandelier. 


Whitewashing  and  Decorating  a  Ceiling,    113 

Before  laying  the  colour  on,  it  should  be  tried  on  some 
surface  and  allowed  to  dry ;  as  if  made  too  dark  the 
ceiling  will  have  a  heavy  appearance.  Pink  or  salmon 
colour  will  be  found  very  suitable  for  the  margins, 
although  others  may  be  used ;  the  stringing  lines  and 


Fig-.  59. — Ceiling-  with  Square  Central  Panel. 

stencilling  will  look  best  in  chocolate,  or  some  similar 
dark  colour. 

Figs.  58  and  59  show  two  other  methods  of  dividing  the 
ceiling  which  have  a  very  good  appearance.  The  centre 
portion  of  the  panels  may  also  be  tinted,  if  desired,  to  a 
very  light  shade  of  the  colour  used  in  the  margins  ;  but 
when  the  room  is  low  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  colours 
light,  while  for  a  lofty  room,  well  lighted,  a  darker  shade 
is  sometimes  an  improvement.  Each  drawing  in  Figs. 
66,  57,  58,  and  59  represents  one-fourth  of  the  ceiling. 


H 


114 


CHAPTER  Vni 

\ 

PAINTING    A    ROOM. 

The  first  step  in  distempering  is  to  obtain  a  clear 
surface  upon  which  to  work  ;  and  in  oil  painting  also  it  is 
necessary  first  of  all  to  remove,  as  far  as  possible,  all  old 
coats  of  paint,  so  that  the  new  shall  have  as  good  a 
foundation  as  can  be  obtained.  Old  paint  is  often 
removed  with  a  charcoal-burner,  but  there  are  other 
methods  more  likely  to  be  within  reach.  A  mixture  of 
soft  soap  and  water,  with  plenty  of  soda  added,  is  a 
fairly  good  paint  remover. 

The  following  recipes  will  be  found  useful  and  more 
effective  : — Take  1  lb.  American  pearlash  and  3  lbs.  quick 
stone  lime ;  slack  the  lime  in  water,  then  add  the  pearl- 
ash,  and  make  the  whole  about  the  consistence  of  paint. 
Cover  the  surface  nf  old  paint  with  the  mixture,  applying 
it  with  a  sash-tool,  and  let  it  remain  several  hours.  If 
necessary,  give  a  second  coat.  Or  coat  the  paint  with 
naphtha,  repeating  if  necessary;  usually  one  coat  is 
sufficient  to  soften  the  old  paint  so  that  it  can  be  scraped 
off.  The  lime  and  soda  method  is  a  good  one,  and  if 
used  to  remove  paint  from  wood  that  is  afterwards  to  be 
stained  is  perhaps  the  best.  To  make  the  preparation, 
put  three  parts  of  quicklime  and  one  part  of  common 
soda  into  a  pail,  and  pour  boiling  water  over  it,  to  form 
a  paste  when  slaked.  Spread  this  paste  with  a  palette 
ov  broad  knife  over  the  paint  to  be  removed.  After 
standing  a  few  "hours,  the  paint  will  become  soft ;  scrape 
off,  and  wash  well  with  cold  water.  When  dry,  give  the 
surface  a  coat  of  weak  acid,  if  it  is  intended  to  re-paint 
it.  The  object  of  this  coat  of  acid  (which  should  be 
applied  with  a  brush,  as  in  painting)  is  to  kill  the 
chemical  action  of  any  of  the  alkali  solvent  that  may 


Fainting  a  Room.  115 

be  still  left  in  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  which  would  be 
liable  to  perish  the  new  paint,  etc.,  put  upon  it. 

This  last  method  is  better  tjian  firing  for  removing 
paint  from  mouldings  and  other  irregular  surfaces,  since 
with  the  charcoal-burner  the  prominent  parts  would  get 
burned  before  the  heat  could  perish  the  paint  in  the 
recessed  parts. 

If,  however,  it  is  desired  to  employ  the  burning 
process,  a  useful  and  reliable  spirit-lamp  should  be 
obtained.  The  Paquelin  (patent)  is  a  simple  contriv- 
ance, of  which  any  parts  may  be  renewed.  Its  chief 
advantages  are :  burning  in  any  position,  its  great  heat, 
simplicity  of  use,  and  lightness.  The  cost  of  working  it 
is  about  a  halfpenny  per  hour.  The  usual  difference  in 
the  appearance  of  burnt-off  work  is  that  some  of  the 
priming  remains  in  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  therefore 
the  surface  would  not  be  so  absorbent  as  the  lime-treated 
portion,  and  it  would  be  hardly  possible  to  get  a  uniform 
colour. 

Varnish  may  be  removed  from  wood-work  by  applying 
as  a  solvent  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  turpentine  and 
alcohol. 

In  cases  where  it  is  only  necessary  to  clean — not  to 
remove — paint,  a  strong  solution  of  soda  will  generally 
do  all  that  is  required.  Some  use  a  pickle  compound 
of  soda  and  slaked  lime,  but  the  soda  solution  will, 
however,  be  found  quite  strong  enough  for  general 
paint-cleaning  purposes,  especially  if  applied  hot ;  but 
do  not  use  it  too  strong,  or  it  will  fetch  paint  (and 
varnish  also)  off  wholesale.  Some  painters  moisten 
grease  spots  with  'turps,  and  then  pumice  and  wash  off 
with  clean  water  only. 

All  f^urfaces  which  are  to  be  painted  should  be 
thoroughly  dry,  clean,  smooth,  and  free  from  dust. 
When  new  wood  is  to  be  painted,  the  first  operation  is 
called  knotting,  the  object  of  which  is  to  prevent  stains 
appearing  upon  the  finished  work  by  the  turpentine 
exuding  from  the  knots  in  the  wood.  There  are  various 
methods  of  effecting  this.    The  preparation  generally 


ii6  House  Decoration, 

used  is  composed  of  shellac  dissolved  in  naphtha,  and 
is  known  as  patent  knotting.  This  operation  may  also 
be  performed  by  covering  the  defective  part  with  a 
composition  formed  of  red  lead  and  a  small  proportion 
of  white  lead  and  whiting  made  into  a  thin  paste  with 
size.  Knots  are  sometimes  covered  with  gold-leaf — a 
certain  prevention,  almost  always  adopted  in  best  work. 
Another  mode  is  to  cut  out  the  knot  to  the  depth  of 
about  \  in,,  and  to  fill  up  the  hole  thus  made  vpith  a  hard 
stopping,  composed  of  white  lead  with  one-third  of 
japan,  and  sufficient  turpentine  to  make  a  stiff  putty, 
or  to  cut  out  the  knot  altogether  and  fill  with  clear 
grained  wood.  This  composition  will  become  hard  in 
about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  ;  but  it  should  be  left  for 
twenty-four  hours,  then  it  should  be  rubbed  down.  It 
may  then  be  painted  over  with  confidence.  The  opening 
made  by  cutting  away  the  knot  must  be  painted  before 
applying  the  composition  ;  otherwise,  it  will  not  adhere, 
but  will  fall  out  immediately  it  becomes  dry. 

Knots  may  be  painted  with  hot  lime,  and  ironed  with 
a  hot  iron  when  dry,  and  then  painted  smooth ;  or  the 
lime  may  be  left  on  for  twenty-four  hours,  scraped  off, 
and  painted  with  red  and  white  lead  and  linseed  oil,  and 
after  this  is  thoroughly  dry,  smoothed  with  pumice- 
stone.  Where  time  is  more  precious,  patent  knotting 
may  be  used.  It  dries  in  from  five  to  ten  minutes, 
forming  a  skin  over  the  knots,  thus  allowing  the  paint- 
ing to  be  proceeded  with  without  loss  of  time.  Where 
the  knots  are  very  bad  and  show  through  the  third  coat 
or  second  coat  after  priming,  they  should  be  covered 
with  silver-leaf.  This  is  done  by  laying  on  a  coat  of 
gold- size,  and,  when  tacky,  a  silver-leaf  is  placed  on, 
which  is  sure  to  prevent  the  knots  appearing. 

The  next  process  is  j)riming.     This  consists  in  laying 

the  first  coat  of  paint,  the  object  being  to  diminish  the 

absorbent  quality  of  the  material  to  be  painted.     This 

j  coat  generally  consists  of  red  lead,  or  red  lead  and  a 

i  small  proportion  of  white  lead,  raw  linseed  oil,  a  little 

litharge  \  and  a  proper  proportion  of  some  drier  is  alsq 


Painting  a  Room,  117 

added.  Red  lead  has  greater  hardening  properties  than 
any  other  pigment  used  in  painting,  and,  being  applied 
to  the  work  fresh  from  the  carpenter's  hands,  the  wood 
absorbs  the  priming  readily,  which  gives  it  a  harder 
surface  as  a  basis  for  successive  coats.  Various  tints 
are  used  by  various  persons,  tTie  red  lead  being  put  in 
haphazard,  apparently  under  the  impression  that  so  long 
as  it  contains  some,  quantity  is  immaterial.  To  serve  its 
purpose  best,  the  priming  coat  should  be  of  a  deep 
salmon  colour,  and  used  much  thinner  than  ordinary 
paint,  the  colouring  matter  being  red  lead  only,  and  not 
Venetian  red,  as  is  sometimes  employed.  Priming  must 
be  done  before  stopping  the  work,  the  reason  being  that,  / 
if  introduced  before  the  first  coat  of  colour  is  laid  on, 
the  putty  used  in  the  process  of  stopping  will  become 
quite  loose  when  dry.  The  more  white  lead  used  in 
priming,  the  better  it  enters  the  pores  of  the  wood.  For 
inside  work,  it  is  composed  of  red  and  white  lead  ground, 
and  mixed  with  linseed  oil  only.  When  dry,  the  work 
is  rubbed  down  with  glass-paper  or  pumice-stone,  and 
all  nail-holes  are  stopped  with  putty. 

The  following  coats  are  termed  second  colour  third 
colour,  etc.,  and  contain  about  as  much  oil  as  turps.  The 
last  is  termed  the  ground,  and  is  nearly  the  colour  of  the 
intended  finish,  except  for  green,  black,  and  some  other 
colours,  for  which  the  ground  is  lead  colour. 

The  almost  useless  practice  of  priming  with  clear- 
cole or  glue  size  instead  of  oil  is  sometimes  resorted  to 
to  save  expense.  Clear-cole  should  not  be  used  in  best 
work,  as  it  does  not  enter  or  become  absorbed  in  the 
pores  of  the  surface  operated  upon,  but  simply  forms  a 
thin  skin  on  the  surface  only ;  hence  it  is  liable  to  crack 
and  drop  off.  Clear-cole  should  not  be  used  except  in 
old  work,  the  surface  of  which  may  be  so  dirty  or  so 
greasy  as  to  prevent  the  proper  drying  of  oil  priming. 
When  thoroughly  dry,  the  priming  should  be  rubbed 
down  with  glass-paper. 

After  the  priming  is  dry,  the  next  process  is  called 
stopping,  and  consists  of  filling  up  and  making  good 


rr8  House  Decoration, 

nail  holes,  cracks,  joints,  etc.,  with  putty  or  a  mixture  of 
putty  and  white  lead.  This  operation  is  done  with  the 
stopping- knife. 

Having  made  good  all  defects  and  seen  that  the  work 
has  been  properly  rubbed  smooth,  the  colouring  coats  are 
applied.  The  brush  should  be  held  at  right  angles  to 
the  face  of  the  work,  so  that  only  the  ends  of  the  hairs 
touch  it,  in  order  to  force  the  paint  into  the  pores  of  the 
material,  and  spread  it  evenly  over  the  surface,  without 
leaving  streaky  marks.  In  good  work,  each  coat  when 
dry  should  be  well  rubbed  down  with  glass-paper  or 
pumice-stone,  and  well  dusted  before  applying  the  next 
coat. 

The  brushes  and  all  the  utensils  should  be  freed  from 
all  dry  paint  by  carefully  scraping  with  a  knife  and 
washing  with  warm  water  ;  otherwise,  the  colours  will 
soon  become  foul,  and  the  work  will  be  very  inferior. 
The  paint  should  be  strained  free  from  skins  and  all 
extraneous  matter.  In  oil  painting,  the  utmost  cleanli- 
ness is  requisite.  With  the  ordinary  paints,  new  wood 
or  iron-work  requires  four  coats,  including  the  priming 
coat,  but  exclusive  of  any  flatting  coat ;  and  old  paint 
should  have  two  coats  for  inside  and  three  for  outside 
work. 

If  it  is  intended  that  the  work  should  have  four  coats 
of  paint,  it  will  be  found  desirable  that  there  be  in  the 
second  coat  some  approach  to  the  colour  required.  If 
three  coats  are  to  be  given,  it  would  be  found  indispen- 
sable. The  second  coat  should  be  diluted  with  about 
one-third  turps,  while  the  third  coat  should  be  mixed  with 
oil  and  turps  in  equal  proportions.  For  the  fourth  coat, 
one-third  of  oil  to  two-thirds  of  turps  should  be  used. 
The  second  coat  for  new  work  is  made  up  chiefly  with 
oil,  as  it  best  stops  the  suction  of  the  wood  ;  but  second 
coat  for  old  work  is  made  up  chiefly  with  turpentine, 
because  oil  paint  would  not  dry  or  adhere  to  it  so  well. 

As  a  general  direction,  when  applying  the  colour,  it 
may  be  stated  that  the  panel  should  be  covered  with  a 
brush  not  over-charged  with  paint;  and  when   laying 


Painting  a  Room.  119 

paint  there  cannot  be  too  little  of  it  in  the  brush,  or  it 
will  ooze  out  in  one  place  as  it  is  taken  up  in  another.  The 
paint  should  be  spread  on  as  evenly  as  possible  ;  and  to 
effect  this,  as  soon  as  the  whole  or  a  convenient  quantity 
is  covered,  the  brush  should  be  passed  over  it  in  a 
direction  contrary  to  that  in  which  it  is  finally  to  be  laid 
off.  This  is  called  crossing.  After  crossing,  the  surface 
should  be  laid  off  softly  and  carefully  in  the  direction 
contrary  to  the  crossings  :  that  is  with  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  taking  care  that  none  of  the  cross  brush  marks 
remain  visible. 

The  criterion  of  good  workmanship  is  that  the  paint 
is  laid  evenly  and  the  brush  marks  are  not  observ- 
able. In  laying  off,  the  brush  should  be  laid  upon  that 
portion  of  the  work  already  coated,  so  that  the  joining 
may  not  be  perceived.  Every  coat  should  be  perfectly 
dry,  and  all  dust  carefully  removed  before  the  succeeding 
one  is  laid  over  it.  When  the  second  coat  is  thoroughly 
dry  and  hard,  it  is  advisable  that  the  work  should  be 
rubbed  down  with  glass-paper  and  carefully  examined, 
to  ascertain  whether  any  further  stopping  or  facing  is 
required. 

Flatting  is  resorted  to  more  especially  in  good  work, 
the  object  being  the  avoidance  of  the  glossy  surface 
appearance  of  oil  paint.  Work  which  is  to  have  three 
coats  and  a  flat  must  be  grounded  with  a  colour  a  few  , 
shades  darker  than  that  in  which  it  is  to  be  finished. 
The  flatting  must  always  be  lighter  than  the  ground,  or, 
when  finished,  it  would  appear  to  consist  of  a  series  of 
shades  and  stripes.  A  uniform  glossy  surface  is  neces- 
sary to  flat  upon.  A  flatting  coat  consists  of  white  lead, 
the  requisite  colouring  matter,  and  turps,  no  oil  being 
used.  Sometim-es  a  little  copal  varnish  is  added. 
Flatting  must  always  be  executed  quickly,  and  the 
brush  should  be  carried  across  the  panel  not  more  than 
once.  The  less  the  brush  is  used  in  flatting,  the  better  . 
it  will  appear  when  finished.  Flatting  will  not  allow  of  / 
being  washed,  so  it  is  not  suitable  for  out-door  work.  In 
bastard  flatting  a  small  portion  of  size  is  added  to  the 


I20  House  Decoration, 

turps,  to  make  a  paint  better  capable  of  standing 
washing. 

In  dealing  with  old  wood- work,  such  as  boarded  ceilings 
or  wainscots,  the  difference  in  cost  between  painting  it  and 
re-distempering  it  will  be  very  great.  To  properly  paint 
it,  it  will  first  be  necessary  to  wash  off  and  scrape  all  the 
old  whiting  away  from  the  wood,  and  then,  w^hen 
thoroughly  dry,  give  it  two  coats  of  oily  paint,  which 
need  not  be  white.  This  would  stop  the  suction  of  the 
wood,  and  a  decent  job  might  then  be  made  of  the  wood 
with  two  more  good  coats  of  white  lead  paint.  Should  thlg 
be  too  expensive  a  method,  the  following  might  suit  the 
case.  Thoroughly  clean  off  the  old  accumulated  whiting, 
and  give  two  coats  of  white  lead  paint  all  over  where 
the  stains  are  ;  this  will  kill  the  stain,  and  a  nice  white 
surface  can  be  obtained  by  distempering  on  the  paint. 
The  cheapest  plan  is  to  give  the  stained  parts  a  thin  coat 
of  plaster  of  Paris  and  water,  applied,  like  distemper,  with 
an  ordinary  brush.  This  will  very  often  kill  a  stain  in 
an  old  plaster  celling ;  but  it  is  not  always  so  effective 
as  painting  the  stains,  which  is  a  certain  remedy. 

Sometimes  the  inexperienced  painter  will  be  annoyed 
by  the  ugly  brown  patches  coming  through  the  paint, 
even  after  three  coats  of  white  lead  paint  have  been  given. 
The  trouble  is  generally  very  easily  accounted  for.  It  is 
the  resin  in  the  knots  exuding  from  the  wood  discolour- 
ing the  lead  paint,  owing  to  the  inferior  knotting  used. 
The  remedy  is  to  give  the  places  a  thin  coat,  or  two  thin 
coats,  of  knotting  composition  :  then  make  up  the  white 
paint — in  proportions  as  before — with  raw  linseed  in- 
stead of  boiled.  Then  cover  the  knots  twice  with  this 
paint,  and  give  one  coat  all  over  to  get  once  more  a  solid, 
uniform  appearance.  Four  coats  are  none  too  many,  so 
there  will  be  no  harm  done. 

When  a  plaster  surface  is  to  be  covered  with  oil 
paint,  a  common  practice  is  to  prime  with  glue  size,  and 
then  cover  with  four  coats  of  colour,  when  the  ordinary 
lead  paints  are  used,  and  a  flatting  coat  can  be  added  if 
desired.    A  better  plan  is  to  apply  a  priming  coat  of 


Painting  a  Room.  121 

boiled  oil  quite  warm,  and,  when  dry  and  hard,  to  add     / 

a  thin  coat  of  weak  size,  tinged  with  red  lead,  m  order 
to  stop  absorption  and  to  give  the  work  a  uniform  tint. 
Finish  off  with  two  coats  of  oil  paint,  and  a  flatting 
colour  if  required  ;  or  two  coats  of  coloured  varnish  can 
be  applied. 

To  guard  against  damp  injuring  the  paint  upon  a 
plaster  wall,  it  is  safer  to  distemper  the  wails  for  the 
first  two  years,  and  then  to  wash  it  off  and  paint,  taking 
care  that  the  walls  are  perfectly  dry.  If  the  distemper  j 
is  not  greasy  or  dirty,  it  is  better  merely  to  brush  it  \ 
well  down  with  a  dry  brush,  and  paint  over  it,  without 
any  washing. 

Eespectiug  cement  wall-skirting,  it  is  not  generally 
advisable  to  paint  until  three  days  after  finishing.  If 
the  roughing  in  mortar  be  thoroughly  dry  and  hard,  and 
a  thin  coating  of  Parian  cement  only  skimmed  over  it, 
a  day  might  be  long  enough  before  painting.  Rough- 
ness is  often  caused,  after  a  time,  by  chemical  reaction 
of  paint  and  wall. 

The  process  of  painting  walls  and  ceilings  in  oil — 
called  flatting — is  one  of  the  house -painter's  most  diffi- 
cult operations.  To  ensure  success,  it  must  first  be  seen 
that  the  wall  or  the  ceiling  to  be  flatted  is  thoroughly 
dry. 

It  is  then  prepared  by  filling  all  holes  and  cracks 
with  a  stopping  composed  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  glue 
size.  The  walls  are  then  rubbed  down  with  glass-paper, 
placed  over  a  joiner's  cork-block,  to  preserve  evenness 
of  surface.  Priming  should  consist  of  one-third  each  of 
raw  oil,  boiled  oil,  and  turpentine,  mixed  with  white 
lead.  Three  coats  of  this  should  be  given,  allowing 
sufficient  time  to  elapse  between  each  coat  to  enable  it 
to  get  dry  and  hard,  and  the  fourth  coat  may  be  tinted 
to  the  colour  required  for  flatting.  The  paint  for  flatting 
is  prepared  by  mixing,  in  turpentine,  white  lead  and  the 
pigment  required  to  form  the  tint  desired,  adding  a  little 
linseed  oil  ;  the  pigment  is  strained  through  muslin 
before  use.     The  paint  should  be  applied  as  rapidly  as 


122  House  Decoration. 

possible,  as -it  is  quick  insetting,  and  should  not  be  re- 
touched. The  stippling  brush  should  be  used  evenly 
and  gently,  and  one  part  finished  before  another  is  com- 
menced. If  a  gloss  is  required,  more  oil  must  be  used, 
and  when  done  in  this  way  it  is  called  bastard  flat,  and 
is  less  liable  to  get  soiled  than  true  flatted  work. 

The  length  of  time  it  is  advisable  to  leave  plaster 
work  before  painting  or  papering  will  vary  according  to 
V  diiferent  circumstances.  Walls  finished  in  white  hard- 
faced  cements,  such  as  Keen's  or  Parian,  can  be  painted 
a  day  or  so  afterwards.  Walls  finished  with  a  large 
proportion  of  plaster  in  the  finishing  coat  may  be  painted 
upon  as  soon  as  thoroughly  dry,  but  it  might  be  advis- 
able to  wait  for  some  months  before  hanging  papers 
containing  pigments  easily  afi'ected  by  lime.  The  ordi- 
nary skimming  coat  of  small  houses  consists  principally 
of  lime  putty. 

New  walls,  as  soon  as  dry,  are  often  temporarily 
coated  with  distemper,  which  is  tinted  with  some  pig- 
ment not  easily  affected  by  lime  :  lime-blue,  ochre,  umber, 
and  Venetian  red  are  the  most  conimon  and  useful.  But 
although  these  colours  will  withstand  the  lime  action, 
this  will,  in  less  than  six  months,  perish  the  size  con- 
tained in  the  distemper.  A  whole  year  is  the  least  time 
that  can  be  safely  advised  before  permanently  papering 
or  painting.  Whether  paint  or  paper  is  the  better 
depends  on  circumstances. 

Successive  coats  of  paint  must  vary ;  one  flat  coat  of 
colour  must  not  be  laid  upon  another,  but  let  the  next 
be  rather  oily.  A  small  quantity  of  varnish  or  of  oil 
should  be  used  to  bind  the  flatting  ;  whichever  is  used 
as  a  binder,  it  is  good  to  mix  it  overnight  and  to  leave 
it  twelve  hours  before  using,  so  as  to  take  the  fire  out  of 
it.  Some  people  close  the  doors  and  windows  whilst  at 
work,  to  retard  the  setting  of  the  colour. 

Varnishing  should  be  done,  as  far  as  possible,  in  warm 
weather  ;  cold  or  damp  chills  the  varnish.  It  should  be 
laid  on  in  short  strokes  and  be  evenly  spread,  care  being 
iiaken  not  to  re-touch  any  part  once  laid. 


Painting  a  Room.  123 

Extreme  cleanliness  need  not  be  further  urged.  The 
object  is  to  put  the  paint  where  it  is  required,  and  to  avoid 
getting  it  on  the  hands  or  in  the  stocks  of  the  brushes. 

Have  the  colour  bench  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
actual  work,  with  a  range  of  colours  ready  ground  ;  or, 
if  dry  pigments  are  used,  have  them  in  bottles — not  in 
pieces  of  paper,  to  be  wasted  all  over  the  bench.  The 
paint-pots  should  be  cleaned  every  night. 

Now,  to  apply  the  foregoing  instructions  in  a 
thoroughly  practical  way,  let  us  suppose  that  the  reader 
has  to  finish  a  newly-built  billiard-room.  Furthermore, 
let  us  suppose  that  the  apartment  is  principally  lighted 
by  a  ceiling  light ;  that  the  remainder  of  ceiling  and  the 
walls  have  been  plastered  with  the  usual  finishing  coat 
of  lime-putty  and  plaster ;  that  the  enriched  plaster 
cornice  which  frames  the  ceiling  is  of  fine  plaster,  and 
the  skirting  and  c3veals  of  recessed  windows  are  of 
Keen's  or  Parian  cement ;  that  the  side  windows  are 
glazed  with  combined  English  sheet  and  ornamental 
coloured  glass  ;  and  that  the  doors  are  of  well-seasoned 
wood  and  properly  hung. 

Being  assured  that  all  the  plaster  work  is  thoroughly 
dry,  we  will  proceed  to  finish  it  in  oil  paint,  except  the 
ceiling,  which  should  be  distempered.  The  plaster  cornice, 
with  its  cast  enrichment,  is  the  most  absorbent  portion  ; 
next  to  this  comes  the  wall  space,  which  the  trowelling 
to  its  surface  has  made  rather  less  thirsty.  The  white 
and  hard-faced  cement  skirting,  made  from  Keen's  or 
Parian,  if  well  finished  off,  will  absorb  but  very  little  oil, 
and  must  be  treated  accordingly. 

Before  getting  a  coat  of  lead  upon  them,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  stop  the  suction  of  cornice  and  walls  ;  and  to  this 
end  break  up,  with  a  small  wooden  spatula  or  flat  stick, 
genuine  white  lead  and  the  best  patent  driers,  in  pro- 
portions of  about  fourteen  to  one.  With  a  little  raw 
linseed  oil,  first  get  it  to  a  thick  batter,  and  when  well 
broken  up,  reduce  it  to^  the  thin  working  consistency  of 
4  lbs.  of  lead  pigment  to  1  pint  of  raw  oil,  which  the 
first  coating  requires. 


/ 


124  House  Decoration, 

As  some  of  the  cornice  is  rather  elaborately  ccist,  thin 
with  still  more  oil  a  part  of  this  paint,  and  proceed  to 
first  coat  the  cornice  only.  In  painting  this  portion,  take 
every  care  not  to  break  the  delicate  plaster  work,  using 
light  and  suitable-sized  paint  tools  to  coat  both  recessed 
and  prominent  parts. 

Here,  perhaps,  it  may  be  asked,  Why  not  use  the 
same  paint  and  cover  the  wall  as  far  down  as  you  can 
reach  at  the  same  time  as  the  cornice?  The  reply  is 
that  the  plaster  on  the  walls  being  well  prepared  and 
trowelled,  it  will  be  an  advantage  to  use  paint  slightly 
thicker ;  and  a  full-sized  paint-brush  will  be  necessary 
to  spread  it  over  a  large  plain  surface.  It  will  be  advis- 
able also  to  strain  the  paint  through  a  wire  gauze  paint 
strainer  or  piece  of  muslin  before  using  it  on  the  walls  or 
wood-work. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  requisite  to  previously  examine  the 
walls  and  pick  out  the  little  blisters  which  have  formed 
on  the  face  of  the  plaster,  and  then  to  well  wet  che 
damaged  place  with  water  and  make  good  with  plaster ; 
but  this  will  not  be  necessary  with  the  case  in  hand. 

Now,  with  an  old  brush  carefully  work  the  paint 
through  the  strainer  into  another  vessel,  and  slightly 
lower  the  plank  or  scaffold,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  reach 
down  half-way  from  cornice  to  skirting. 

Re-commencing,  first  take  a  piece  of  partly-worn  fine 
or  middle  2  glass-paper,  and  lightly  rub  over  the  wall  as 
far  as  can  be  reached ;  then  with  a  dusting-brush  and 
a  downward  movement  remove  any  dust  which  has 
accumulated.  With  a  full  brush  of  colour  now  make 
a  start  from  the  right-hand  extremity,  and,  working 
towards  the  left  hand,  cover  about  a  yard  in  width  at 
each  shift.  After  taking  a  good  dip  of  colour,  gently 
draw  the  brush  against  the  side  of  the  paint-pot,  and 
then  carry  the  colour  to  the  wall  with  an  up-ended 
movement,  and  thus  avoid  waste  in  transit.  Spread 
each  of  these  brushfuls  of  paint  about  six  inches  apart 
with  a  long  up  and  down  movement,  and  when  the 
patches  extend  about  three  or  four  feet  in  width,  spread 


Painting  a  Room.  125 

the  paiat  evenly  by  repeated  cross-brushing.  Now  it  is 
roughly  distributed,  but  is  not  sufficiently  smooth,  since 
the  marks  of  the  brush  hairs  show  distinctly;  the 
surface,  therefore,  has  to  be  done  over  again  with  the 
brush,  first  with  perpendicular  and  then  with  horizontal 
brushing,  but  no  more  paint,  and  each  time  with  a  lighter 
hand.  Having  finally  drawn  the  tip  of  the  brush  down 
the  work,  starting  each  stroke  from  the  top  and  working 
from  right  to  left,  it  will  be  found  that  the  marks  of  the 
brush  are  not  noticeable,  and  that,  the  paint  is  properly 
laid  off.  Move  the  paint-pot  a  little  to  the  left  and 
again  commence  laying  on  brushfuls,  and  spread  and  lay 
the  paint  off  as  before,  until  the  upper  half  of  one  side 
of  the  wall  is  covered.  Now  descend  and  paint  the 
lower  half  in  a  similar  way,  except  that  in  the  final 
laying  off,  finish  with  a  light  movement  upward,  from 
skirting  to  the  join,  so  that  all  signs  of  this  are  removed. 

Though  all  house-painters  do  not  spread  paint  on  this 
simple  but  regular  system,  yet  for  good  work  it  cannot 
be  excelled,  and  is,  at  least,  preferable  to  any  haphazard 
plan. 

The  painted  walls  must  stand  for  at  least  a  day,  and 
meanwhile  attention  may  be  turned  to  the  wood -work. 
Let  us  suppose  by  arrangement  with  the  builder  this 
has  been  left  in  the  white  or  plain  wood,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  sashes  and  window-frames,  which  have  to 
be  primed  before  being  glazed,  and  so  protected  from 
the  ill  effects  of  wet  weather  before  fixing.  The  sooner 
a  coat  of  priming  is  put  on  new  wood-work  which  is  to 
be  ultimately  painted,  the  better;  so  touch  over  any 
knots  in  the  wood  with  one  or  two  coats  of  quick-drying 
patent  knotting  :  this  material  prevents  the  resin 
exuding  and  discolouring  the  work.  Then  take  some 
thin  oil  paint  as  used  on  the  walls,  and  adding  to  it 
sufficient  dry  red  lead  to  make  it  a  full  pink  colour, 
prime  the  new  wood- work.  As  with  the  wall,  so  with 
the  wood-work — first  lightly  rub  it  down  with  glass- 
paper,  and  carefully  dust  the  work.  First  paint  the 
^ge  of  the  door  and  panel  mouldings,  then  the  panels 


126  House  Decoration, 

themselves,  working  from  the  top  downwards ;  proceed 

with  the  stiles  between  panels,  the  top,  lock,  and  bottom 
cross  rails,  all  brushed  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  and 
laying  off  the  outer  stiles  last  of  all,  which  reach  from 
top  to  bottom  of  the  entire  door.  Careful  spreading  and 
systematic  working  are  just  as  necessary  for  wood  as 
for  plaster,  but  whilst  plaster  is  always  laid  off  with 
up-and-down  strokes,  wood  is  always  brushed  in  the 
direction  of  its  grain. 

The  priming  coat  being  now  satisfactorily  completed, 
proceed  to  the  second  coating. 

Glance  round  the  room  before  making  up  the  paint, 
and  get  some  idea  of  what  is  required.  There  is  little 
evidence  of  oil  paint  on  the  white  cornice  plaster  beyond 
the  discoloration  of  its  surface,  so  that  the  oil  has  all 
been  absorbed  into  it.  The  walls,  however,  having  been 
trowelled  and  finished,  exhibit  patches  of  the  glossy  paint 
on  the  surface  ;  this  shows  that  the  absorption  of  paint  is 
entirely  stopped  in  those  places,  and  probably  nearly  so 
all  over.  Under  these  circumstances,  paint  of  the  same 
kind,  but  with  a  little  more  lead  in  it,  is  required  for 
the  second  coat  upon  the  cornice,  but  for  the  walls  the 
paint  is  made  up  considerably  rounder  or  thicker,  and 
instead  of  all  oil,  two  parts  of  linseed  to  one  of  turps  are 
used,  with  sufficient  Venetian  red  in  oil  to  give  a  decided 
pink  cast ;  the  mixture  is  then  strained.  This  variation 
in  tint  not  only  makes  it  easy  to  see  that  no  part  is 
missed,  but  also  has  an  agreeable  influence  of  colour 
upon  the  succeeding  coats. 

The  second  coat  being  now  spread  upon  cornice  and 
walls,  as  before,  return  to  the  wood- work.  Having  lightly 
papered  it  down,  dust  it,  and  stop  the  nail-holes  in  the 
panel  mouldings,  etc.,  with  putty  made  from  white  lead 
stiffened  with  best,  or  gilders',  whiting.  After  stopping 
wood-work,  it  is  advisable  to  let  it  stand  a  day,  to  allow 
the  putty  to  harden  on  the  surface.  The  second  coat  of 
paint  can  then  be  applied  without  affecting  it ;  this 
should  be  of  similar  proportions  to  that  last  spread  on 
walls.     There  are  now  two  coats  upon  all  the  work, 


Painting  a  Room.  127 

the  absorption  in  cornice,  wall,  and  wood-work  being 
thereby  effectually  stopped. 

Before  considering  the  finishing  colour  of  the  painted 
work,  attention  must  be  turned  to  the  ceiling.  This  is 
coated  with  clear-cole,  to  stop  some  of  the  suction  of  its 
porous  surface  ;  and  having  again  become  thoroughly 
dry,  finish  the  cornice  with  three  coats  of  white  paint, 
and  the  flat,  or  bed,  with  a  coat  of  faint  pink  distemper : 
a  process  fully  described  in  a  previous  chapter. 

It  has  been  previously  mentioned  that  in  spreading 
a  succession  of  coats  of  oil  paint,  upon  plaster-work 
especially,  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  two  successive  coats 
of  all  oil  colour  except  for  the  purpose  of  stopping 
absorption  ;  when  that  end  is  gained,  it  is  necessary  to 
mix  the  next  coat  with  turpentine  in  a  larger  proportion 
than  oil.  To  continue  using  successive  layers  of  paint 
very  oily  causes  each  coat  to  harden  in  itself ;  but  if 
sharp  or  turps  paint  be  interposed  between  two  coats  of 
oil  paint,  the  three  coatings  become  firmly  bound 
together.  In  Jiatting  or  dead-painting  surfaces,  this 
same  system  underlies  the  whole  process.  A  last  coat  of 
oily  paint,  nearly  identical  in  colour  to  the  desired  tint 
of  flatting,  is  very  carefully  spread,  and  upon  this  ground 
the  thin  coating  of  purely  turps  colour  is  laid,  generally 
the  next  day  or  next  but  one,  before  the  ground  becomes 
properly  hard.  This  is  the  action  that  takes  place 
providing  the  ground  and  flatting  are  properly  prepared 
and  manipulated  :  the  oil  of  turpentine  slightly  opens 
the  surface  of  the  linseed  oil  ground  beneath,  so  that 
this  takes  hold  of  the  particles  of  pigment  contained  in 
the  flatting,  whilst  the  gradual  evaporation  of  the  turps 
leaves  the  surface  without  gloss,  the  pigment  being  held 
by  the  oil  beneath,  but  uncovered  upon  its  surface. 
Properly  flatted  wood-work  and  walls  can  be  washed  as 
safely  as  can  oily  paint,  but  the  same  knowledge  of  its 
nature  is  as  necessary  to  successfully  clean  and  preserve 
it  as  it  is  to  prepare  it.  It  is  onlyswhen  wrongly  treated 
that  flatting  will  not  stand  fair  wear  and  tear. 

Having  determined  to  flat  the  cornice,  it  must  be 


128  House  Decoration. 

previously  grounded  with  oil  paint,  somewhat  akin 
to  the  finishing  flatting  colour.  The  wall  space  may  be 
left  in  a  medium  gloss  of  oil  paint,  so  that  the  third  coat 
must  be  of  sharp  colour  and  near  the  tint  of  the  finishing 
paint.  The  cement  skirting  should  now  be  first  coated 
with  the  paint  used  on  walls ;  then  finish  that  and 
the  wood- work  with  two  more  coats  of  good  oil  paint. 
This  is  with  a  view  to  present  economy  and  the  tem- 
porary nature  of  the  job ;  permanent  embellishment  is 
to  come  later  on. 

Let  us  suppose  here  that  the  final  colour  of  the  walls 
has  been  decided  upon,  and  that,  in  accordance  with  the 
remarks  in  the  chapter  on  Colour,  a  dull  soft-toned  green 
has  been  chosen  for  the  walls,  relieved  by  the  contrasts 
of  complementary  colours  elsewhere. 

To  prepare  the  third  coating  and  ground,  the  sharp 
wall  colour  is  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  twelve  lead  to 
one  patent  driers,  with  nearly  three-fourths  of  turps  to 
the  remaining  fourth  of  linseed  oil.  There  is  no  need  to 
measure  exactly,  but  if  the  solids  are  beaten  up  in  oil 
into  thick  batter  consistency,  it  will  require  sufficient 
turps  to  thin  it  for  use.  Sufficient  of  the  thick  paint  is 
put  aside  to  sufiice  for  the  cornice,  and  before  thinning 
the  remainder  for  the  walls,  it  is  stained  to  warm  green 
with  Prussian  blue^  yellow  ochre,  and  burnt  umber, 
ground  in  oil.  Ths  exact  shade  is  similar  to,  though 
much  lighter  than,  sage  green.  To  ensure  a  good  solid 
wall  when  finished,  this  third  coating  paint  is  stained 
several  shades  darker^  because  a  finishing  tint  will  cover 
much  better  when  laid  upon  a  darker  shade — a  point  to  be 
remembered  in  oil  paintings  In  mixing  both  this  and 
the  finishing  wall  paint,  first  stain  the  white  to  a  medium 
blue,  then  add  ochre  to  convert  it  into  green,  and  lastly 
add  the  umber  to  soften  and  neutralise,  or  to  warm  the 
green  mixture.  Previous  to  spreading  the  "  sharp  " — that 
is,  comparatively  quick-drying  paint — it  is  necessary 
to  ground  the  cornice ;  but  as  it  is  intended  to  use  some 
warm  tints  in  contrast  to  the  sage  green  walls,  it  is  best 
to  first  mix  colours  for  finishing  the  wood-work. 


Painting  a  Room.  129 

As  some  relief  to  the  mass  of  wall  colour,  let  the 
w70od-work  be  painted  in  dark  warm  shades,  such  aa 
Arabian  brown  and  terra-cotta  No.  3.  Use  the  brown, 
which  is  the  darker  of  the  two,  upon  the  entire  door 
frame,  the  window  frames,  and  the  doors,  with  the 
exception  of  the  panels  and  mouldings  around  same,  and 
the  deep  bottom  plinth  of  the  skirting.  Paint  the  panels 
of  the  wood- work,  the  window  sashes,  and  top  plinth  o/: 
skirting  with  terra-cotta  ISTo.  3 ;  and,  with  a  view  to 
brightening  up  the  whole  door,  finish  the  panel  mould- 
ings and  one  member  or  division  of  the  door  frame  with 
the  soft  sage-green  wall  colour.  This  method  shows  the 
advantage  of  deciding  and  making  up  the  warm  green 
dominant  colour  at  the  start,  so  that  the  remaining  and 
contrasting  colours  may  be  compared  with  it,  and  a 
harmonious  effect  obtained.  The  colour  for  the  wood- 
work is  made  from  Venetian  red  and  burnt  umber 
chiefly,  and  Indian  red,  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
ochre,  lightened  up  with  white  for  the  panels. 

The  cornice  may  be  treated  in  three  main  divisions. 
Paint  that  portion  next  the  wall  with  a  colour  similar  to 
the  wood-work  panels,  but  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
more  white  and  umber ;  the  middle  recessed  division, 
or  cove,  paint  with  a  slightly  bluer  grey  and  lighter 
tint  of  wall  colour,  made  by  adding  to  it  a  very  little  blue 
and  white ;  and  ground  the  third  and  top  division  of 
mouldings  a  lighter  and  more  golden  hue  than  the  base 
part.  These  cornice  paints  are  prepared  from  the  thick 
white  paint  put  aside  for  this  purpose.  A  little  of  the 
wood- work  and  wall  paints  have  been  added  for  staining 
or  colouring.  They  are  now  well  strained  and  thinned 
with  three  parts  oil  and  one  of  turps,  and  are  spread 
according  to  the  above  arrangement.  The  wall  is 
papered  down,  and  any  little  indentations  in  the  plaster 
are  faced  up  with  the  same  stopping  as  used  for  wood- 
work 

It  is  now  third-coated  with  the  soft  sage-green  colour, 
used  darker  than  the  desired  finish,  and  with  fully  two- 
thirds  of  turps  to  one  of  oil  The  third  coat  requires  to 
I 


13°  House  Decoration. 

be  rather  thicker  than  the  two  previous  ones,  and  it  mast 
be  well  spread,  laid  off,  and  worked  rather  expeditiously, 
one  flank  or  division  of  the  wall  at  a  time,  to  prevent  the 
joints  showing.  The  cement  skirting  is  afterwards  first- 
coated  with  the  same  colour  spread  very  barely  ;  as  it  is 
a  comparatively  non -absorbent  surface,  this  sharp  paint 
forms  the  best  key  for  the  finishing  coat  of  dark  red. 
Its  present  colour  is  no  disadvantage,  since  the  first 
coat  of  wood-work  paint  will  effectually  hide  it. 

Now  the  cornice  is  ready  for  flatting,  and  the  walls 
for  the  fourth  and  last  coat  of  oil  paint.  Break  up  lead 
and  paste  driers  with  former  proportions  of  solids,  but 
all  turpentine,  into  batter  consistency.  Divide  it  into 
the  quantity  required  for  the  three  divisions  of  cornice, 
stain  them  a  few  degrees  lighter  than  the  respective  oil- 
ground  colours,  using  the  blue,  red,  ochre,  and  umber 
pigments  for  staining,  and  then  strain  and  thin  with 
more  turps,  ready  for  use.  The  nature  of  the  flatting 
process  has  been  already  explained;  but  the  painter 
must  now  take  each  coat  right  along  each  flank :  firsty 
the  light  terra-cotta  next  to  ceiling;  then  the  green - 
grey  recessed  portion  ;  and  lastly,  the  bottom  division  of 
warm  colour.  If  all  three  colours  were  brought  along  at 
once,  the  joints  would  invariably  appear  shiny,  the  effect 
of  which,  at  intervals  of  every  five  or  six  feet,  would  be 
disagreeable,  and  would  spoil  the  repose  of  the  entire 
cornice. 

Flatting  requires  to  be  very  quickly  done,  and  the 
brush  must  not  touch  the  surface  after  the  paint  once 
commences  to  set,  which  it  will  do  within  a  few  minutes. 
When  a  large  surface  of  wall  is  to  be  flatted,  the  paint 
must  be  spread  entirely  over  it  at  once  ;  so  that,  if  single- 
handed,  do  not  in  this  case  attempt  more  than  the  cornice. 
If  any  small  portions  of  a  large  place  are  missed  in  the 
flatting,  the  wall  is  spoiled,  not  so  much  by  the  colour  of 
the  part  missed,  but  by  the  bright  oily  gloss  of  the 
ground.  Use  the  flatting  much  thinner  than  the  oil  paint 
— almost  as  thin  as  milk — taking  special  care  to  coat 
all  recessed  as  well  as  prominent  portions,  so  that  ik 


Painting  a  Room.  131 

all  dries  as  dead  and  solid  as  the  pink  distempered 
ceiling. 

All  danger  of  splashing  now  being  over,  give  the  walls 
a  final  rub  down  with  No.  \\  glass-paper,  and  finish  them 
with  the  lighter  tint  of  sage-green,  prepared  as  before, 
but  with  two-thirds  of  oil  to  one  of  turps,  which  dries 
with  a  good  medium  gloss,  and  allows  plenty  of  time  to 
spread  it  over  and  lay  it  off. 

Ceiling,  cornice,  and  walls  being  now  finished  and 
dry,  the  skirting  and  wood-work  alone  remain.  The 
paint  for  the  latter  is  already  made,  but  requires  the 
addition  of  one  of  terebine  to  twelve  or  fourteen  of 
paint,  which  is  preferable  to  white  driers  in  compound- 
ing this  paint.  Thin  suflScient  of  this  with  two  parts  of 
turps  to  one  of  oil ;  carefully  rub  down  and  face  up  the 
work,  taking  special  care  not  to  rub  the  previous  coat  off 
the  sharp  edges  of  the  mouldings.  Coat  the  wood  on  the 
system  .previously  explained.  The  light  panel  paint  is 
first  spread,  covering  mouldings  also  this  time ;  and 
then  the  brushes  are  well  worked  into  the  dark 
Arabian  brown  colour,  and  the  remainder,  including 
skirting,  is  painted.  On  the  day  following,  the  third 
coat  will  be  quite  hard,  therefore  finish  it  right  off  with 
the  remainder  of  the  thick  mixed  paint,  but  made  to  a 
working  consistency  with  reversed  quantities  of  liquids  : 
namely,  two-thirds  linseed  oil  to  one  of  turps,  leaving 
the  picking  in  of  the  panel  mouldings  with  the  sage- 
green  wall  colour  until  the  next  day. 

Now  look  around,  and  gather  up  the  lessons  this 
room  should  have  taught.  There  are  different  pro- 
portions of  solids  and  liquids  to  compound  oil,  sharp, 
and  flatting  paints  for  walls  and  wood-work.  A  good 
notion  has  been  obtained  of  the  system  of  working  or 
manipulating  them,  as  well  as  the  methods  of  thought 
required  in  deciding  colours,  from  which  latter  it  will 
have  been  gathered  that  successful  colour  results  are  the 
outcome  of  scientific  arrangement — taste  it  is  usually 
termed.  The  necessity  for  clean  and  careful  work, 
dusting  the  work,  and  well  straining  the  paint,  and 


132  House  Decoration. 

thereby  saving  much  time  and  glass-paper,  on  new  wood 
particularly,  will  be  now  thoroughly  understood.  As  to 
the  colour  scheme  of  the  billiard-room,  perhaps,  to  those 
who  have  been  used  to  black  and  amber  drabs  favoured 
by  the  builder,  its  present  appearance  may  give  the  im- 
pression of  being  rather  "  loud."  But  when  the  billiard- 
table  is  fixed  in  the  room,  with  its  pure  green  cloth,  the 
wall  colour  will  assume  a  warmer  and  much  more  sombre 
tone,  making  a  fine  background  for  oil  paintings  in 
gilded  frames  ;  whilst  the  dark  warm  shades  of  the 
wood- work  will  correspond  effectively  with  the  mahogany 
framework  of  the  table,  and  will  suit  equally  well  with 
any  other  articles  of  furniture  usual  to  a  billiard -room. 


133 


CHAPTER  IX 

PAPERING     A    ROOM. 

Paper-hanging,  as  a  distinct  trade,  is  but  of  recent 
date,  originating  within  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years. 
In  earlier  days  it  was  as  often  a  carpenter's  job  as  a 
painters,  and  even  now  it  is  only  in  the  largest  trade 
centres  that  we  find  it  followed  as  a  separate  branch 
of  work.  The  wide  range  in  materials  and  prices  of 
paper-hangings— from  the  cheapest  "pulps"  at  2d.  a 
piece  to  the  "  Japanese  leathers  "  at  60s.,  now  provided 
for  all  classes  of  houses  and  for  all  conditions  of  life — 
makes  the  subject  of  properly  fixing  paper  hangings  a 
wide  one. 

In  papering  a  room,  all  the  old  paper  should  be  first 
stripped  off  the  walls.  A  painter's  stopping-knife  is  very 
handy  for  this  purpose.  If  it  is  found  that  this  damages 
the  wall  too  much,  those  parts  that  are  thoroughly  stuck 
to  the  plaster  may  be  left ;  but  it  is  much  better  to  take  it 
all  off,  being  careful  not  to  dig  into  the  plaster  with  the 
knife.  Carefully  pull  out  all  nails,  etc.  All  loose  or  bad 
places  should  be  cut  out  and  made  good  with  plaster  of 
Paris  or  with  a  piece  of  brown  paper  pasted  over  them. 
When  dry,  give  all  the  walls  a  coat  of  thin  size  (as  when 
clear-coleing  a  ceiling).  The  sizing  sometimes  shows  up 
loose  pieces  of  paper  not  torn  off.  If  this  is  so,  tear 
them  off,  and  touch  the  places  with  size  again.  It  is 
very  often  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  get  varnished  paper 
off  walls,  especially  if  the  paper  has  been  varnished  after 
it  is  hung.  If  the  paper  is  properly  hung,  and  there  is 
only  one  paper  on  the  wall,  it  will  hardly  be  necessary  to 
take  it  off.  If  it  is  quite  tight  to  the  wall,  and  there  is 
no  fear  of  its  stripping  of  its  own  accord,  it  will  make 
a  very  good  ground  for  the  new  paper.  To  prepare  a 
varnished  paper  for  re-papering,  properly  smooth  down  all 


134  House  Decoration. 

joints  and  projecting  pattern  with  glass-paper,  then  give 
the  wall  a  good  coat  of  strong  size  in  which  a  little 
previously  soaked  whiting  has  been  added.  When 
thoroughly  dry,  rub  this  coat  of  size,  or  "sheepskin," 
down  with  glass-paper,  and  you  will  have  a  good 
eiurface  on  which  to  hang  new  paper.  To  re-paper,  any 
good  paper  will  do ;  but  the  sanitary  papers — so-called 
washable — are  the  easiest  to  varnish.  If  it  is,  however, 
considered  that  the  original  varnished  paper  should  come 
off,  scratch  it  all  over  with  an  old  fork,  and  hang  wet  sheets 
over  the  paper,  keeping  them  wet  and  tight  to  the  paper 
until  the  water  has  got  behind  the  varnish  ;  then  strip 
the  paper  off  with  a  wide  chisel  or  stripping-knife.  If 
this  does  not  get  the  paper  off,  you  must  give  it  a  coat 
of  hot  lime,  taking  care  not  to  touch  any  painted  work. 
After  the  paper  is  off,  well  wash  the  wall  and  surrounding 
wood-work  with  vinegar  before  sizing  the  wall  for  new 
paper. 

The  best  way  for  a  novice  to  cut  the  margins  of  the 
wall-paper  is  to  unroll  a  piece  of  paper  right  along  the 
length  of  the  table  or  paste-board,  letting  the  unrolled 
part  fall  on  the  floor  at  the  further  end.  Then,  sitting 
down,  start  cutting  to  the  pattern,  at  the  same  time 
rolling  the  paper  up  with  the  left  hand.  When  one  edge 
is  cut,  turn  the  piece  round  and  unroll  it,  again  letting 
the  unrolled  part  fall  on  the  floor  at  the  other  end,  as 
before,  and  trim  the  other  edge,  cutting  right  up  to  the 
pattern.  Sharp  paperhangers'  scissors  are  best  for  this 
work,  which  must  be  done  very  carefully  and  true,  so  as 
to  butt  the  edges  together,  and  not  lap  them  ;  therefore, 
they  must  be  perfectly  straight.  The  pattern  is  straight, 
so  cut  exactly  to  it  in  a  series  of  cuts'  as  long  as  the 
scissors  will  allow.  The  paper  must  now  be  re-rolled  in 
the  same  way  as  it  was  originally.  Bear  in  mind  that  the 
outside  end  of  the  piece  is  always  the  top  of  the  paper. 
Now  proceed  with  the  rest  of  the  pieces  in  the  same 
manner. 

To  make  paste  for  paperhanging,  put  half  a  quartern 
of  flour  in  a  clean  pail,  and  thoroughly  mix  it  with  clean 


Papering  a  Room  135 

cold  water  until  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  thick  cream, 
and  then  pour  boiling  water  on  it  quickly  out  of  a  sauce- 
pan, mixing  it  all  the  time  until  it  thickens.  Then  stand 
it  by  until  it  gets  cold.  Sometimes  alum  is  put  in  it ;" 
about  half  an  eggcupful  of  powdered  alum  would  be  an 
advantage,  as  it  will  prevent  vermin  breeding  after  the 
paper  is  hung.  A  small  quantity  of  carbolic  acid  in  the 
paste,  besides  repelling  cockroaches  and  all  other  insects, 
will  neutralise  the  disagreeable  odour  consequent  upon 
the  decomposition  of  the  paste,  which  in  newly-prepared 
walls,  is  sometimes  very  offensive.  The  cheapest  and 
best  form  of  carbolic  acid  is  in  crystals.  These  dissolve 
in  warm  water.  If  the  paste  is  lumpy,  it  should  be 
strained  to  remove  the  lumps,  but  these  should  not 
occur  in  properly  made  paste. 

A  piece  of  wall-paper  is  20  in.  wide,  12  yds.  long,  and  / 
contains  63  super,  ft.  or  7  sq.  yds.  Measure  the  length 
and  the  height  of  the  walls  in  feet,  and  multiply  them 
together ;  this  gives  the  superficial  feet  of  wall. 
Dividing  the  sum  by  nine  gives  the  superficial  yards, 
and  then  dividing  by  seven  the  number  of  pieces  of  wall- 
paper required.  It  is  customary  to  allow  one  piece  in  v/ 
ten  for  waste.  Another  way  of  measuring  a  room  for 
papering,  is  to  go  round  the  room,  marking  off  how  many 
20  in.  there  are  round  the  walls,  then  reckon  how  many 
lengths  can  be  got  out  of  the  12  yds.,  allowing  for  waste ; 
divide  the  number  of  20  in.  there  are  round  the  room  by 
the  number  of  lengths  you  can  get  out  of  the  12  yds., 
and  this  will  give  you  the  number  of  pieces  required.  A 
slip  of  wood  exactly  20  in.  long  is  handy  for  taking  this 
special  measurement. 

The  paperhanger  needs  a  good  table  to  work  on — one 
at  least  5  ft.  6  in.  long,  and  if  a  table  of  sufficient  length 
is  not  available,  it  will  pay  to  buy  two  pine  boards  \  in. 
thick  by  11  in.  wide,  6  ft.  long.  Lay  them  side  by  side 
on  any  support,  and  secure  them  together  by  two  battens 
screwed  on  underneath.  Cover  one  side  of  these  boards 
with  brown  paper  pasted  on.  These  will  now  give  a 
surface  to  work  upon,  and  there  wiU  be  no  fear  that  a 


136  House  Decoration. 

good  table  will  be  damaged.  Light  trestles  are  generally 
used  for  supporting  the  boards. 

Now  cut  the  paper  into  pieces  of  the  lengths  required. 
This  is  the  difficult  part,  but  attention  to  what  follows 
will  enable  you  to  do  this  all  right.  First  cut  off  a  piece 
2  in.  longer  than  the  height  from  the  skirting  to  the 
ceiling,  and  pin  it  up  in  its  place  temporarily,  so  that 
there  is  1  in.  in  excess  at  the  top  and  1  in.  at  the 
bottom.  Now  hold  up  by  the  side  of  it  the  uncut  paper, 
and  match  the  pattern  ;  to  do  this,  you  must  waste 
some  paper ;  how  much,  depends  on  the  pattern  chosen 
the  length  of  which  is  indicated  by  dots  on  the  edge  of 
the  paper.  Cut  this  next  length  off  and  tack  it  up, 
making  the  pattern  match.  Studying  these  two  pieces 
will  show  what  is  required  for  the  remainder. 

The  first  piece  can  be  taken  down  and  laid  on  the 
paste-boaid,  face  upwards.  Now  take  the  next  piece 
and  make  the  patterns  on  the  edges  coincide,  and  care- 
fully notice  the  position  as  they  lie.  Lay  the  second 
piece  directly  over  the  first;  unroll  the  uncut  paper, 
making  the  pattern  match  with  the  second  on  the  edge 
opposite  to  that  which  matches  the  first.  Cut  off  this, 
making  the  third  piece,  allowing  enough ;  but  not  so 
much  as  will  cut  into  the  pattern  for  the  other  end  of 
the  next  piece.  Proceed  in  this  manner  until  as  many 
lengths  have  been  cut  as  required.  Now  turn  the 
whole  pile  face  downwards,  get  all  the  edges  even  and 
about  3  in.  away  from  the  front  edge  of  the  board, 
letting  both  ends  overhang  the  board  equally. 

An  apron  will  be  a  protection  against  making  the 
clothes  dirty ;  one  with  a  bib  and  a  pocket  in  front  is 
most  convenient  for  all  such  jobs  about  the  house.  For 
a  brush,  a  stiff  hat-brush  will  serve,  as  it  can  be  washed 
afterwards — but  the  brush  made  for  the  purpose  will  be 
better ;  a  clean  piece  of  rag  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
duster,  and  a  wheel-castor,  off  a  chair,  fastened  to  a 
bradawl  handle  for  rolling  down  the  joints  ;  these 
things,  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  should  be  in  the  pocket  of 
the  apron. 


Papering  a  Room. 


137 


Paperhangers',  or  papering,  brushes  are  as  shown  at 
Fig.  60  ;  these  are  used  for  hanging  new  paper  to  walls, 
just  in  the  way  that  a  cloth  is  used  by  some  persons. 
The  shape  of  the  back  is  somewhat  similar  to  a  spoke- 


lliyiliii)lilMilJilj|iilllElllJllli:ajili!!iiilllti 

Fig.  60. — Paperhangers'  Brush. 

brush— long  and  thin,  so  that  the  hand  can  grasp  it 
comfortably.  Paperhangers  use  such  a  brush  for  the 
bulk  of  their  work ;  but  for  "  satin "  goods  and  very 


Fig-.  61. — Paperhangers'  Roller. 

delicate  papers  the  roller  (Fig.  61)  is  substituted  for  the 
brush,  and  with  this  the  paper  is  rolled  into  close 
contact  with  the  wall.  When  newly  purchased,  it  is 
usual  to  cover  a  roller  neatly  with  a  couple  of  thick- 
nesses of  flannel  _  ^ 
Now  for  hanging :  work  your  paste- brush  (Fig.  37,p^66) 


138  House  Decoration. 

well  into  the  paste,  and  clean  it  by  scraping  it  on  the  edge 
of  the  pail.  Keep  the  pail  in  one  position,  so  that  you 
scrape  the  brush  against  the  same  side,  then  when  the 
brush  is  laid  upon  the  top  of  the  pail,  the  handle  does 
not  get  covered  with  paste.  Pull  the  top  piece  of 
paper  towards  you,  so  that  the  nearest  edge  comes  about 
half  an  inch  over  the  front  edge  of  the  board,  and  draw 
the  paper  to  the  left,  till  about  half  an  inch  of  that 
end  which  will  be  the  bottom  of  the  paper  when  hung 
overhangs  the  board  on  the  right-hand  end.  Paste  this 
first  piece,  beginning  at  the  bottom,  and  going  the  whole 
length  of  the  board.  You  cannot  paste  the  board,  and 
any  paste  that  goes  on  the  next  piece  of  paper  at  the 
back  does  no  harm.  Take  hold  of  the  bottom  end  of 
the  paper,  and  fold  it  back  on  itself,  letting  it  lie  without 
wrinkles  lightly  on  the  other  pasted  part,  with  the  edges 
coinciding.  Draw  it  from  left  to  right  along  the  board 
and  paste  the  rest,  being  very  careful  not  to  let  any  paste 
get  on  the  face  side. 

Conveying  a  length  of  pasted  paper  from  the  paste- 
board to  the  wall  is  not  so  easy  a  process  as  it  looks. 
One  of  the  best  methods  that  a  professional  worker  will 
use  for  lengths  of,  say,  about  8  ft.  is  as  follows  -.—The 
lengths  being  cut  to  about  the  right  size  and  properly 
arranged  for  clean  pasting  upon  the  pasteboard,  the 
lower  half  is  first  pasted,  and  then  folded  over  for  about 
18  in.  or  more  of  doubled  length.  The  paper  is  moved 
along  and  the  pasting  completed  ;  the  top  end  is  folded 
over  to  the  centre,  pasted  sides  together,  and  then  turned 
right  back.  In  conveying  and  fixing  it,  the  top  edge  is 
taken  hold  of  firmly,  but  carefully,  by  finger  and  thumb 
of  each  hand,  and  the  fold  is  held  by  the  other  fingers. 
If  working  from  a  plank  and  scaffold,  it  is  necessary,  of 
course,  to  use  one  hand  to  get  up  to  the  work,  in  which 
case  the  top  is  folded  as  the  bottom,  and  the  length 
thrown  over  one  arm.  The  difference  between  having 
the  top  edge  in  the  fingers  ready  for  matching  and  that 
of  having  to  unfold  the  same  lias  a  marked  effect  in 
the  speed  of  paperhanging. 


Papering  a  Room.  139 

See  that  the  steps  are  convenient  for  mounting. 
Starting  from  one  side  of  a  window,  carefully  take  the 
pasted  piece  of  paper  by  the  two  top  corners,  a  finger 
being  on  the  pasted  side  and  a  thumb  on  the  face 
side  of  the  paper,  raise  the  edge  to  the  ceiling,  and 
having  previously  plumbed  the  outside  of  the  window- 
frame,  see  that  the  length  hangs  straight  and  upright 
■wdth  the  window;  gently  press  the  top  part  of  the 
paper  against  the  wall  sufficiently  to  hold  its  weight ; 
draw  the  bottom  away  from  the  wall  and  undo  the 
fold,  letting  the  whole  length  hang  free  of  the  wall 
except  the  top  six  inches.  See  that  it  hangs  plumb,  and 
fix  it  there  with  a  downward  sweep  of  the  brush  in 
the  centre,  and  then  brush  outwards  both  ways  from  the 
centre.  The  paper  should  now  hang  without  a  wrinkle. 
With  the  back  of  the  scissors  mark  a  line  on  the  face 
of  'the  paper  along  the  angle  where  the  wall  joins  the 
ceiling;  draw  the  paper  gently  away  and  cut  it  along 
this  line,  brushing  the  paper  back  afterwards  ;  then  treat 
the  bottom  in  the  same  manner.  Now  go  over  the  whole 
with  a  clean  cloth,  dabbing  it  all  over  carefully,  and  roll 
the  edges  down  with  a  wheel  or  castor.  If  the  top  or 
any  other  part  needs  a  little  adjusting,  gently  draw  it 
away  from  the  wall,  and  brush  it  back  to  its  place. 

Proceed  with  the  next  piece,  taking  care  that  the 
pattern  matches  and  the  joint  butts  exactly.  Go  round 
part  of  the  room  in  this  manner  until  you  come  to  the 
door.  There  commence  on  the  other  side  of  the  window 
and  go  round  in  the  opposite  direction,  taking  care  to 
finish  behind  the  door  or  in  a  dark  corner.  Frequently 
try  the  lengths  with  a  plumb-bob,  with  the  upper  end  of 
the  line  fastened  round  a  bradawl,  so  that  by  lightly 
driving  the  bradawl  into  the  plaster  directly  in  the  joint 
of  the  paper,  you  can  at  a  glance  see  how  you  are 
getting  on. 

At  internal  angles,  measure  from  the  last  piece  hung 
up  to  the  angle,  and  cut  that  width  of  paper  on  the  paste- 
board, hang  it,  and  then  follow  with  the  remainder.  In 
all  cases  use  such  paper  as  will  stand  a  lot  of  handling 


I40  Bouse  Decoration, 

in  the  hanging,  and  from  which  any  paste,  etc.,  can  be 

sponged  off  afterwards. 

If  a  ceiling  is  to  be  papered,  treat  it  in  precisely  the 
same  manner  as  the  walls,  allowing,  of  course,  for 
relative  different  positions.  A  small  diaper  pattern 
paper  is  perhaps  most  suitable  for  ceilings. 

If  a  damp-proof  paper  is  required,  there  are  several 
kinds  to  be  obtained,  or  the  newly-hung  paper  might  be 
varnished.  To  varnish  paper,  great  care  must  be  taken  in 
the  hanging.  The  paper  should  then  be  twice  sized  with 
clear  size,  put  on  just  before  it  chills,  being  very  careful 
to  cover  every  bit  with  each  coat  of  size ;  for  wherever  you 
miss  in  sizing,  the  varnish  will  turn  that  place  dark. 
The  same  with  the  joints  or  any  torn  places — if  the  papei 
does  not  stick  perfectly  to  the  wall,  the  varnish  will  turn 
the  places  dark.  When  the  size  is  quite  dry,  rub  it  ovei 
with  a  piece  of  brown  paper,  and  then  varnish  witl? 
French  oil-varnish  if  the  paper  is  at  all  light  coloured. 

Varnishing  the  paper  makes  a  decided  improvement 
but  a  paper  fit  for  or  worth  varnishing  cannot  be  obtained 
for  much  under  Is.  per  piece.  Don't  use  good  varnisl 
on  a  common  paper,  if  varnishing  at  all.  Sanitary  papers, 
from  Is.  per  piece  upwards,  are  good  value,  and  can  be 
sponged,  but  not  washed.  Paper  must  be  twice  coated 
with  patent  size  previous  to  varnishing.  The  size  must 
be  applied  in  liquid  form  ;  hence  the  print  of  the  paper 
must  be  made  so  that  it  will  not  rub  up. 

Whilst  the  embellishments  of  the  exteriors  of  our 
houses  have  increased,  those  of  the  interiors  have 
declined,  except  where  the  expensive  Japanese  leather, 
or  the  elaborate  Lincrusta  Walton,  or  the  modelled 
Tynecastle  tapestry  hold  their  sway. 

Some  of  the  fancy  papers  require  special  treatment. 
Embossed  paper  should  be  weU  soaked  with  paste,  and 
allowed  to  remain  a  short  time,  to  make  it  pliable.  A 
roller  with  a  china  wheel — not  a  metal  one — could  be  used 
for  the  edges  with  advantage,  but  be  careful  not  to  press 
too  heavily.  The  ordinary  roller  should  also  be  used ,  as 
well  as  the  brush  and  cloth. 


Papering  a  Room.  141 

Japanese  leather  papers  may  be  hung  in  the  follow  • 
ing  manner : — 

Having  rigged  up  a  paste-board  or  table,  get  a  strip 
of  zinc  the  length  of  paste-board ;  tack  one  end  of  it 
under  the  end  edge,  and  flush  with  the  edge  of  board 
next  you.  Draw  and  stretch  it  over  top  of  the  board  to 
the  other  end,  and  tack  it  under  in  the  same  way.  Now 
get  a  straight-edge  of  very  hard  wood,  or,  if  possible,  a 
steel  straight-edge ;  a  shoemaker's  knife  and  a  hone 
are  indispensable  tools.  Roll  out  some  paper,  face 
upwards,  at  right-hand  end  of  table.  Sometimes  this  is 
rolled  face  or  pattern  side  downwards.  In  this  case,  place 
a  sheet  beneath  it,  drag  one  end  of  it  over  top  of  table, 
and  tie  a  piece  of  rag  round  a  weight,  and  place  that  on 
the  end,  to  keep  it  from  curling  back  on  you.  The  edge 
of  the  stuff  is  supposed  to  be  lying  along  the  middle  of 
the  zinc  ;  place  the  straight-edge  on  the  edge  to  come  off, 
being  careful  not  to  cut  straight  down,  but  so  that 
the  edge  of  the  knife  inclines  from  you.  This  causes  the 
edges  of  the  paper  when  pressed  together  to  form  a  close 
butt.  When  all  the  walls  are  rubbed  down  and  sized, 
measure  off  each  length  on  the  wall,  and  where  the  joints 
come,  run  a  brush  full  of  flat  same  colour  as  ground  of 
paper,  for  fear  of  shrinkage ;  if  this  is  not  attended  to, 
and  the  paper  happens  to  shrink  as  it  dries,  the  gap 
looks  very  bad.  As  this  kind  of  paper  is  heavily 
embossed,  rub  on  plenty  of  paste,  and  if  thick,  let  it 
soak  ;  then  fix  the  paper  by  patting  it,  and  keep  a  small 
hammer  and  a  few  copper  tacks  handy. 

The  comparative  value  of  a  light-coloured  wall-paper 
in  a  room  has  been  calculated  from  systematic  photometry 
to  be  as  follows  : — Supposing  100  candles  give  a  certain 
light  in  a  room  covered  with  dead  black  cloth,  87  candles 
will  give  the  same  amount  of  light  when  dark  brown 
paper  is  used.  With  blue  paper,  72  are  as  effective ;  with 
fresh  yellow  paint,  60  candles ;  newly-dressed  deal- 
boarded  walls,  50  candles ;  but  if  papered  or  painted  a 
pure  white,  15  candles  have  as  much  lighting  effect  as 
the  100  when  surrounded  by  black  cloth-covered  walls. 


142  House  Decoration. 

Wall-papers  that  contain  arsenic  are  not  always  greeo 
in  colour,  although  mostly  so.  To  find  if  this  injurious 
mineral  is  present,  place  a  little  of  the  suspected  paper, 
torn  into  pieces,  in  a  watch-glass  and  cover  with  liquor 
ammonia,  letting  this  soak  well  in.  Drop  a  small  piece  of 
lunar  caustic  upon  the  paper  ;  the  formation  of  a  yellow 
precipitate  shows  the  presence  of  arsenic.  Many  green 
papers  contain  no  arsenic. 

For  the  purpose  of  cleaning  wall-papers  the  value  of 
stale  bread  is  very  generally  known,  and  its  service  more 
largely  requisitioned  than  that  of  all  other  substances. 
It  is  well  suited  for  the  job,  and  deservedly  in  favour, 
but  in  many  respects  is  not  equal  to  the  comparatively 
unknown  dough  process.  This  is  cheaper,  quicker,  leaves 
no  dust  or  crumbs  about,  and,  with  moderate  care,  will 
make  an  equally  good  job  with  a  less  expenditure  of 
labour.  The  dough  for  this  purpose  is  simply  a  mixture 
of  coarse  flour — the  coarser  the  better— and  water, 
mixed  to  a  rather  stifiFer  consistency  than  for  a  pudding. 
About  1  lb.  or  \\  lbs.  of  flour  will  be  sufficient  to  clean 
the  walls  of  one  good-sized  room,  even  though  the  paper 
be  very  dirty.  The  loose  dust  on  the  walls  should  first 
be  removed  by  a  soft  broom  or  brush,  and  then  the  lump 
of  dough  passed  lightly  over  the  paper,  when  it  will  be 
seen  to  remove  the  dirt  in  its  path  as  eflfectively  as  an 
indiarubber  squeegee  removes  liquid  mud  from  an 
asphalte  road.  The  dough  in  use  softens  as  it  works,  and 
in  consequence  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  have  some 
flour  in  a  bowl  to  roll  it  in  occasionally. 

If  not  intended  to  wash  the  ceiling,  it  may  with 
advantage  be  treated  the  same  as  the  walls,  though  if 
thus  done,  it  will  not,  of  course,  have  the  brilliant  white- 
ness of  a  fresh-distempered  ceiling.  By  this  means  it  is 
quite  possible  to  thoroughly  clean  the  walls  and  ceiling 
of  a  fair-sized  room  in  less  than  an  hour.  Even  though 
the  walls  and  ceiling  may  be  very  smoky  and  dirty  before 
cleaning,  and  the  walls  show  by  very  pronounced 
patches '  the  parts  that  have  been  covered  by  pictures, 
furniture,  etc.,  when  finished  they  will  present  an  evenly 


Papering  a  Room.  143 

clean  appearance,  suggestive  of  new  paper  ;  the  coiling 
also  will  look  clean  and  presentable,  though  previously 
blackened  by  smoke.  For  simplicity,  ease,  cheapness, 
and  the  facility  with  which  this  work  can  be  done  by 
anyone  without  previous  experience,  the  dough  method 
of  cleaning  commends  itself. 

If  the  stains  on  the  paper  to  be  cleaned  are  the  result 
of  moisture  or  dampness,  it  will  be  a  waste  of  time  and 
trouble  to  clean  them.  The  remedy  is  to  use  a  water- 
proof paper,  or  to  treat  the  walls  in  some  way. 


144 


CHAPTER   X. 

SIMPLE  EMBELLISHMENT   OF    WALLS  AND  CEILINGS. 

Some  of  the  methods  by  which  the  embellishment  of 
walls  and  ceilings  can  be  achieved  are  extremely  simple, 
and  their  eflfectiveness  when  finished  is  far  out  of  pro- 
portion to  the  smallness  of  the  time,  the  labour,  and  the 


Fig.  62. — Four  Designs  for  Ashlar  Work  Dado. 

cost  involved.  Some  of  these  methods  it  is  intended 
briefly  to  indicate  in  this  chapter,  and  the  reader  who 
has  attentively  perused  the  previous  pages  will  find 
no  difficulty  in  following  out  the  directions  which  follow. 
Fig.  62  shows  a  simple  treatment  in  ashlar  work 
suited  for  ornamenting  a  dado.  There  are  four  distinct 
patterns  shown  in  the  illustration ;  they  are  distinguished 
by  numbers,  and,  of  course,  one  pattern  only  would  be 
adopted  for  one  dada 


Embellishment  of  Walls  and  Ceilings.    145 

A  ground  colour  of  plain  Bath  stone  with  lines  of 
dark  red  would  be  an  effective  scheme.  The  lines  are 
made  with  a  straight-edge  and  lining  fitch,  in  the  way 
described  on  a  previous  page. 

Fig.  63  represents  a  simple  plaster  cornice,  em- 
bellished with  a  frieze  border  stencilled  below  it.  Fig. 
64  shows  the  pattern  to  be  stencilled  just  above  the 
skirting-board.  Ornaments  of  these  designs  are  of  the 
simplest  kind,  and  by  their  regular  repetition  of  simple 
forms  are  suggestive  of  Greek  decoration.     Such  an 


7?.A7//?r?/^ 


Fig.  63.— Coloured  Plaster  Cornice,  with  Stencilled  Frieze. 


arrangement  of  base  and  frieze  borders  is  suitable  for 
bedrooms  and  parlours ;  a  deeper  frieze  is  more  or- 
namental if  skill  and  other  circumstances  permit. 

Supposing  a  cool  but  cheerful  room,  with  a  greeny- 
blue  tint  as  the  dominant  colour-sensation.  The  ceiling 
is  tinted  ivory  or  cream  white,  preferably  a  tint  of  raw 
sienna,  as  chromes  are  too  bright.  This  will  "throw 
up"  the  colour  of  walls  by  force  of  colour  contrast. 
The  wall  colour  made  from  white  stained  with  blue,  a 
little  green,  and  a  little  umber  is  put  on  the  top 
section  of  cornice,  b.  The  cornice  cove,  a,  is  painted  a 
dull  "  old  gold,"  and  a  darker  shade  of  wall  colour  forms 
its  base,  c.  These  three  colours  are  advised  for  the 
wood-work  of  the  room ;  panels  to  be  coloured  same  as 
wall  mouldings,  "old  gold"j  and  the  stiles  and  rails, 
and  other  woodwork,  a  much  deeper  tone  of  wall  colour. 


146  House  Decoration. 

It  is  suggested  the  width  between  the  thick  inner 
lines  of  the  frieze  be  6  in.,  and  base  borders  8  in.  But 
this  width  can  be  increased  or  diminished  at  pleasure. 
The  ornament  and  lines  may  be  either  in  a  darker  tone 
of  the  wall  colour  or  in  old  gold.  A  more  striking 
contrast  between  pattern  and  ground  is  made  with  the 
ornament  of  a  nut-brown  colour;  this  colour  may  be 
used  for  lines,  and  deep  grey  or  old  gold  for  the  stencils. 

The  deep  frieze  (Fig.  65)  and  base  border  (Fig.  66) 


• 


lei,  ^  astk 


w "®-  w  -®- 


Fig  64.— Grecian  Style  Pattern  for  Stencil. 

shown  on  page  147,  may  well  be  adapted  to  a  dining-  or 
living-room,  or  even  to  the  walls  of  a  library  or  study. 

This  frieze  is  essentially  a  decorative  one,  and  it  is 
not  wise  to  apply  this  design  to  the  lower  part  of  a  wall 
which  has  a  great  amount  of  wear.  Assuming  a  room 
the  lower  part  of  which  gets  much  hard  wear  :  Mark 
out  and  paint  a  dark  dado  or  base  division,  from  24  in. 
to  30  in.  in  height  from  top  of  skirting.  Above  this, 
and  on  the  light  ground  of  filling  space,  stencil  the  base 
border  with  the  dado  colour,  using  for  the  margin  lines 
a  still  darker  shade,  or  black. 

A  frieze  as  well  as  a  dado  is  an  acceptable  feature  in 
dining-rooms  where  the  height  of  walls  is  not  less  than 
11  ft.  or  12  ft.  The  design  given  in  Fig.  65  may,  how- 
ever, be  used  in  rooms  of  even  less  height,  because  the 
depth  of  the  frieze  division  can  be  lessened  to  any 
extent 


Embellishment  OF  Walls  and  Ceilings.    147 

The  lower  stencil  in  Fig.  65  may  be  done  in  a  deep 
brown-red  ;  but  if  done  in  two  colours,  use  the  brown - 
red  for  the  base-line  and  battlement  lines  and  boss,  and 
use  a  light,  greeny,  old  gold  for  the  "  lily "  ornament 
The  fine  filling  line  may  also  be  done  in  the  frieze  blue 


-&-S^t^^ 


•;« 

Fig,  65.— Design  for  Stencil  Frieze. 


Fig.  66.— Design  for  Base  Border. 

colour  when  the  wall  filling  used  is  sufficiently  light  to 
show  up  a  blue. 

Other  tints  suggested  for  this  design  (Fig.  65)  are  a 
faint  blue  tint  for  the  ceiling,  corresponding  to  the  frieze 
blue.  The  simple  floral  ornament  (a),  stencilled  on  the 
grey  ceiling  with  the  brown  stencil  colour  and  with  a 
line  next  cornice,  will  greatly  relieve  the  bareness  of  a 


I4S 


House  J) eco ration. 


/ 


Fiff.  67.— Stencil  Designs  for  entire  "Wall. 

ceiling.  The  woodwork  may  be  painted  plain  dark  reds, 
with  blue  moulding,  or  dark  gobelin -blue  stiles,  buff 
panels,  and  red-brown  mouldings. 

The  next  set  of  designs  (Fig.  67)  shows  a  design  for 
a  '^  diaper  "  dado  in  which  d  e  may  be  taken  to  represent 


Embellishment  of  Walls  and  Ceilings.     149 

a  height  of  24  in.,  which  the  borders,  top  (c)  and  bottom 
(f),  each  6  in.  in  width,  make  a  total  height  of  three  feet, 
exclusive  of  skirting.    If  this  be  too  high,  the  bottom 


/^\ 


Fig.  68. — Design  for  Filling  enlarged. 

border  may  be  omitted,  a  dark  line  alone  terminating 
the  design.    Figs.  68  and  69  show  portions  of  the  dado, 


Fig.  69. — Design  for  Dado  enlarged. 

border,  and  filling  designs  enlarged  to  twice  the  previous 
proportions.  These  will  enable  the  reader  to  set  out  the 
work,  and  also  to  see  where  the  "  ties  "  are  arranged. 


ISO 


House  Decoration. 


A  very  handsome  effect  can  be  obtained  with  the  design 
in  two  colours  upon  the  dado  ground.  Two  stencils, 
one  for  each  colour,  will  be  required  for  this  treatment. 


'U-'h 

>  i .. 

>  ra^. 

>     li   ^«    V^A, 

.^^- 

^> 

.^^        ^ 

Fig-.  70. — Border  Ornament  for  Ceiling. 

The  wall  is  set  out  in  12  in.  squares,  and  the  stencil 
corresponds  ;  first  stencil  one  colour  right  through,  when 
that  is  dry,  stencil  the  other.  Carefully  set  out,  and 
carefully  drawn  and  cut,  this  design  can  be  executed 


__-.. ^ 

^^m 

^a 

-^=^-"— 

^=^ 

b=.=^r^ 

^ 

^^B 

s 

BE 

^S2S 

BB 

EI 

BBSJ 

El 

■ 

Fig.  71. — Deep  Frieze  Ornament. 

more  speedily  than  at  first'glance  the  reader  may  suppose. 
The  filling  stencil  is  of  so  simple  a  nature,  it  needs  no 
analysing. 

Room  decoration  in  the  Italian  style  shown  by  Figs. 
70,  71,  and  72,  may  seem  ^  formidable  task.    Thesa 


Embelushment  op  Walls  and  Ceilings.    151 

stencils  have  been  arranged  with  a  particular  aim  to 
their  use  for  a  drawing-room  or  best  parlour,  and  as 
giving  a  sensation  of  more  decided  elegance  and  delicacy 
of  environment  than  does  either  of  the  previous  designs. 
We  have  a  deep  frieze  (Fig.  71),  a  base,  scroll-pattern 
border  (Fig.  72),  and  an  ornament  for  the  ceiling  (Fig. 
70).  It  will  be  seen  that  the  frieze  design  will  require 
much  more  care  in  enlarging  than  the  one  shown  by 
Fig.  65,  and  also  that  it  cannot  be  extended  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  latter.    Some  alteration  in  depth  may  be 


Fig.  72. — Base  Border  Ornament. 


effected  with  the  dark  border-band  on  top.  This  may 
be  omitted,  or,  to  gain  width,  may  be  repeated  as  a  base- 
band to  the  frieze. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  two  ground  colours  are 
suggested  in  the  base-border  (Fig.  72).  On  this  feature 
much  of  the  charm  of  the  effect  will  depend,  and  it  well 
repays  the  trouble  of  first  painting  in  the  upper  half 
with  a  darker  or  contrasting  colour. 

The  chief  danger,  and  one  that  must  be  avoided  at 
all  cost  of  colour  prettiness,  lies  in  the  colours  and  tones 
not  being  balanced— that  is  to  say,  we  must  keep  the 
design  equally  distinct  and  plain  throughout,  and  not 
"dying  away  into  the  wall"  in  some  portions.  The 
blending  of  stencil  ornament  is  scarcely  a  task  for  the 
novice,  and  perhaps  the  best  results' will  be  met  with 
when  the  colour-charm  is  present  in  the  contrasting 
masses,  of  colour,  and  the  designs  kept  full  in  contrast 
and  pleasing  by  reason  of  their  form  and  arrangement 
of  line  and  curv§. 


152  House  Decoration. 

A  deep  "  Gobelin  "  or  "  greenish  "  blue  may  be  used 
for  stencilling  the  frieze  design,  or  a  marone  brown. 
The  base  scroll  (Fig.  72)  should  be  stencilled  with 
similar  colour,  upon  grounds  of  medium  gobelin  blue 
(upper)  and  wall  colour  (lower  portion).  If  the  frieze 
design  is  done  in  blue,  use  marone  brown  for  the  margin 


^is^.^v^_,>n|^r^i^,.v^^^;^r^ 


^'«^'^'^js:m:^rj'±^^ 


Fig.  73. — Design  for  Border. 


^ife- 


Fig.  74.— Design  for  Border. 

band,  which  is,  of  course,  put  in  with  a  small  separate 
stencil.  The  cornice  will  be  in  old  gold,  creams,  etc.,  in 
tone  with  wall  filling ;  the  ceiling  grey,  and  the  ceiling 
stencil  in  blue  and  marone  brown  upon  a  margin  having 
old  gold  ground.  The  woodwork  of  room  should  be 
nut-brown  and  fawns,  with  a  little  gilding. 

The  four  figures  which  follow  show  designs  of  the 
Adams'  type — named  so  after  the  introducers  of  this  style 
of  decoration— which]  consists  chiefly  of  repetitions  of 
simple  forms  delineated  in  graceful  lines. 

Fig.  73  is  a  border  pattern  with  a  series  of  plain 
horizontal  lines.    Fig.  74  is  another  design,  which  may 


Embellishment  OF  Walls  and  Ceilings.    153 


•^.V-^^  ^  ^--m'-^' 


Fig.  75. — Deep  Frieze  Decoration. 


%SM^msM''ZM. 


n 


fig,  76  — Dado  in  Bordep  and  Panels, 


154 


House  Decoration. 


be  repeated  as  often  as  necessary  to  go  round  a  room. 
Fig.  75  is  a  pattern  that  repeats  itself  in  36  inches. 
Fig.  76  is  a  dado,  36  in.  high,  with  panels  alternating  in 
widths  of  9  in.  and  18  in. 

The  embellishment  of  ceilings  offers  great  scope  for 
the  decorator.    Fig.  77  shows  a  design  for  stencilling  in 


Fig.  77._Coriier  of  Ceiling  Stencilled  in  Colours. 


colours,  the  corner  being  so  arranged  that  four  stencils 
will  join  and  make  a  centre  ornament. 

The  way  to  draw  this  stencil  is  shown  on  p.  155. 
The  point,  a,  is  taken  as  centre,  and  arcs  are  drawn  at 
intervals  of  6  in.  The  corner  angle  is  divided  into  two, 
and  then  one  half  is  divided  into  four.  By  these  means 
Bmall  drawings  can  be  enlarged  to  any  extent. 


Embellishment  OF  Walls  and  Ceilings,    155 


y^a^j^^ 


Fig .  78, — How  to  draw  a  Stencil. 


IS6 


House  Decoration, 


Fig.  79  shows  one  quarter  of  a  ceiling  14  ft.  square 
without  plaster  central  ornament.    The  illustration  is 


-S^ 


/v^ 


Fig.  79. — Desig-n  for  Ceiling  Embellishment. 


drawn  to  a  scale  of  \  inch  to  a  foot,  and  the  reader  can 
prepare  from  it  all  necessary  drawings  to  working  size. 


INDEX 


Adatas'  Desi^s,  152 
Adulteration  of  Brushes  60 

Pigments,  45 

Turpentine,  58 

White  Lead,  58 

Alum,  Use  of,  in  Distemper, 
Antwerp  Blue,  29 
Apron,  Paper-hanger's,  136 
Arsenic  in  "Wall-papers,  142 


B 

Balcony,  Portable,  for  Painting 
Windows,  12,  13 

Bastard  Flat,  162 

Bedroom  Decoration,  18 

,  Suitability  of  Distemper  for,  91 

Beeswax,  Use  of,  in  Distempering, 
99 

BerUn  Black,  54 

Bidwell,  Professor,  on  Colour,  12 

Billiard  Koom  Painting  and  Decora- 
ting, 25,  123-132 

Binders  for  Distemper,  93,  94 

Black  Chalk,  29 

,  Japan,  54 

Lead,  29 

Paint,  29 

Pigments,  28,  29 

Blue  Black,  28 

Pigments,  29-32 

Verditer,  32 

Borders  for  Walls  and  Ceilings, 
150-152 

Bronze  Green,  33 

Yellow,  90 

Brown  Pigments,  32 

Bristles  for  Making  Painters' 
Brushes,  59 

Brush,  Stippling,  122 

Brushes  for  Distempering,  65,  66 

Dusting,  64 

,  Painters',  59,  70 

, ,  Preserving,  69 

, ,  Tying,  68,  69 

,  Paperhangers',  137 

for  Stencilling,  64 

,  Varnish,  Preserving,  70 

for  Washing,  65 

Burnt  bieiLua,  38 


Ceiling,  Decorating,  145-147, 154' 

,  Distempering,  in  Pink,  108-110 

,  Papering,  140 

,  Stains  on,  105 

,  Stopping  Cracks  in,  105 

,  Whitewashing,  103-105 

Cement  Wall  Skirting,  Painting,  121 

Charlton  White,  43 

Chemical  and  Mechanical  Action, 

Distinction  between,  27 
Nature  of  Pigments,  Necessity 

for  a  Knowledge  of,  76 
Chromes,  Medium,  33 

,  Pale,  32 

,  Yellow  and  Orange,  32 

Cinnabar,  37 

Cleaning  a  Eoom,  110 

Cleanliness,  Necessity  for,  91,  123 

Clear-cole,  94,  96,  98 

Cobalt  Blue,  29 

Colour,  Combinations  of,  24 

,  Constants  of,  11 

,  Definition  of,  9 

— -  Distinguished  from  Pigment,  9 

'  Harmony,  16 

,  Lord  Rayleigh  on,  12 

,  Professor  Bidwell  on,  12 

,  Reducible  to  Formulae,  13 

Testing,  44 

,  The  Eelationship  ot  to  form 

16,17 
Colours,  Common,  76 

,  Complementaries  of,  14, 15 

,  Contrasts  of,  16 

,  General  Remarks  on,  75,  76 

,  Impressions  produced  by,  15 

,  Names  of,  75 

,  Oil,  10,  81-90 

of  Opaque  Objects,  12 

,  Primary,  13,  14 

,  Secondary,  14 

,  Superior,  76 

,  Tertiary,  14 

Complementary  Colours,  14,  15 
Constants  of  Colour,  11 
Contrast  in  Colour,  16 
Cornices,  Decorating,  112,  145 

,  Distempering,  107 

,  Painting,  129,  130 

,  The  Use  of,  23 

,  Tinting,  18-iW 


^ 


?^ 


IS8 


Index. 


Dadoes,  146, 149, 15S 
Damp  "Walls,  121 
Damp-proof  Wall-i>aper,  140 
Decoration,  Italian  Style  of,  ISO 
Dining-room  Decoration,  20,  22 
Distemper,  Definition  of,  11 

,  Mixing  Tints  of,  101 

Tool,  Use  of,  108 

,  Washing  off,  104 

Distempering,  91-102, 108-110 

,  Brushes  for,  65,  66 

,  Pigments  used  in,  102 

Dough  for  Cleaning  Walls,  142 
Drawing-room  Decoration,  21,  22 
Driers,  65-57 

E 

Earth  Blacks,  29 
Egg-sheU  Gloss,  97 
Embellishments     of    Interiors     of 

Houses,  140 
Walls   and  Ceilings,   144- 

156 
Emerald  Green,  33 
English  Paint  Tools,  61 
Experience,    Necessity   of,   to    the 

Decorator,  26 


Facia- writing,  9 

Filling  up  Cracks  and  Nail-holes,  99 

Fitches,  63 

Flake  White,  44 

Flatting,  119, 121,  127, 130 

,  Brushes  for,  67 

Fluorescence  of  Paraffin,  57 
FormulsB  for  describing  Colour,  13^ 
French  Grey  Paint,  To  make,  80 

Bound  Tool,  63 

Friezes,  145-147,  153 


Gamboge,  33 

German  Paint  Tools,  61 

Gilders'  Fat  Oil,  48 

Glue  for  Distemper  Purposes,  94 

Powder,  96 

Green  Pigments,  33,  45 

reaUy  a  Primary  Colour,  12 


Halls  and  Staircases,  Decoration  of, 

22 
Harmony  of  Colours,  16,  25 
House-Painter:  his  Work  described,9 
Hue,  11 


Indian  Beds,  36 
Indigo  Blue.  30 


Invisible  Green,  33 

Italian  Style  of  Decoration,  150 

Ivory  Black,  28 


Japan,  54,  .55 

Japanese  Leather  Papers,  Hanging, 

141 
Jones,  Owen,  on  Colour  as  applied 

to  Form,  16 
, ,  on  Colour  Comblnationfl, 


K     CfL 


Kalsomining,  94,  99 
Kiives,  Chisel,  71,  72 

,  Glaziers',  72 

,  Painters',  71,  72 

,  Stopping,  71 

Knotting,  55, 115,  116 


Lake  Colours,  34 

,  YeUow,  90 

Lamp  Black,  28 
Library,  Decoration  of,  22 
Lime,  Blue,  31 
Limers,  67 
Luminosity,  11 


Madder  Lake,  34 

Mechanical  and  Chemical  Action, 

Distinction  between,  27 
Mixing  Paints,  74-90 


N 


Names  of  Colours,  75 

Pigments,  75 

Nottingham  White,  4i 


Ochres,  34,  86 

on.  Boiled,  48 

Colour,  9 

Colours,  How    to   Mix,  74-90. 

(The  various  oil  colours  ar3 
alphabeticiJly  arranged  in  the 
text,  and  are  therefore  not  separ- 
ately indexed.) 

,  GUders*  Fat,  48 

of  Turpentine,  9,  40 

Olive  Green,  33 


Paddle  Brush,  67 
Paint,  Cleaning,  115 

,    To    Distinguish    Zinc     from 

Lead,  46 

,  Eemoving,  114,  115 

,  The  Uses  of,  9 


^:^. 


/ 


Index.  ijg 


Painting,  The  Criterion   of    Gk)od 

Worknmnslup  in,  119 

Plaster  Surface,  120 

a  Eoom,  114-132 

Paints,  Bases  of,  75 

,  Oil,  Mixing,  74-90 

Paper,  Stripping,  off  Walls,  133 
Paper-hanging,  133 
Paper  HangijQgs,  Material  for,  133 
Papering  Ceilings,  140 

a  Eoom,  133-143 

Papers  (see  "Wall  Papers.) 

Paris  Green,  33 

Paste  for  Paper-hanging,  134 

Patches,  Brown,  on  Painted  Surface, 

120 
Plaster  Surface,  Oil  Painting,  120 
Photometry,  141 
Pigments,  Adulterants  of,  45 

Distinguished  from  Colour,  9 

,  The  Manufacture  of,  27 

that  must  not  be  Mixed,  76 

,  Names  of,  75 

,  Qualities  of  Good,  27 

for  Staining  Whiting,  102 

Preser\dng  Paint  Brushes,  69,  70 

Varnish  Brushes,  70 

Primary  Colours,  14 

Priming,  116 

Prussian  Blue,  30 

Purity  of  Tints,  how  Obtained,  100 

Purple  Brown,  35 


B 

Raw  Sienna,  38 

Eayleigh,  Lord,  on  Colours,  12 

EedLead,  35,  55 

Ochres,  36 

Pigments,  35-37 

EoUer,  Paperhangers',  137 
Boom,  Cleaning,  110 

Decoration,  145-156 

•^— ,  Measuring,  for  WaU-paper,  135 

,  Painting,  118,  119 

Eoyal  Blue,  31 

Euskin,  Mr.,  on  Colour  as  applied 
to  Form,  16 

S 
Sash  Tools,  61,  62 
Scaffold-board    for   Whitewashin*:. 

104 
Scales  of  Tones,  12 
Secondary  Colours,  14 

,  Compounding,  77 

Siennas,  Eaw  and  Burnt,  38,  76 
Sieve  for  Straining  Paints,  70,  71 
Silver  White,  44 
Sitting-room  Decoration,  19 
Size,  94,  96 

,  Japanners'  Gk)ld,  55 

Powder,  96 

Spirit  of  Toxpentine,  9 


Stains,  Removing,  from  Ceiling,  105 

,  Varnish,  54 

Staircases,  Decoration  of,  22 
Stencil  Brushes,  64 

,  How  to  Draw  a,  154 

StenciUing,  145,  151,  152,  154 

Stipplers,  67 

Stipphng  Brush,  122 

Stopping,  117 

Straight-edge,  64 

Straining  Paints,  70,  71 

Study,  Decoration  of,  22 

Sublimation,  27 

Suction  of  Cornice  and  Walls,   To 

Stop,  123 
Surface,  Eelation    of,  to  Coverine 

Material,  79,  98 


Table  for  Paperhanger,  135 
Tempera,  11 

Painting,  91-102,  10&-11C 

Terebine,  56,  57 

Terms,  Definitions  of,  11 

Terra  di  Sienna,  38 

Terra  Vert,  38 

Tertiary  Colours,  14,  44,  45 

,  Compounding,  77 

Testing  Brushes,  60 

Oxide  Paints,  45 

Turpentine,  49,58 

White  Lead,  46 

Tone,  11 

Tones,  To  Prepare  a  Series  of,  12 

Tools,  English  Paint,  61 

,  German  Paint,  61 

,  Painters',  64-73 

,  Paperhangers',  136, 137 

Turkey  Eed,  37 

Turpentine,  Adulterants  of,  58 

,  Oil  of,  9  49 

,  Spirit  of,  9 

,  Testing,  49,  58 

Tying  Paint  Brushes,  68,  69 


Ultramarine  Blue,  31 

Factitious,  32 

Umbers,  Eaw  and  Burnt, : 


Vandyke  Brown,  32 
Varnish,  10,  50-54 

,  Bath,  54 

,  Cheap  Oak,  52 

,  Church  Oak,  52 

,  Copal,  51,  52 

,  Hard-Drying,  52  \ 

,  Maple,  53 

,  Mastic,  51 

,  Oil,  51 

,  Eemoving,  from  Woodwork, 

115 


i6o 


Index. 


Vamist  Stains,  54 

for  WaU  Papeis,  53 

,  White  Hard,  53 

Varnishing,  49 

,  BrusheB  for,  63 

,  Time  of  Year  for,  122 

"Wall  Papers,  140 

Vegetable  Black,  29 

Vehicles,  9,  54 

Venetian  Red,  37 

Verdigris,  34 

Vermilion,  37 

,  The  Manufactiire  of,  27 


W 

Wall-paper,  133 

,  Arsenic  in,  142 

,  Cleaning,  142 

,  Comparative  Value  of  Light- 
coloured,  141 

,  Cutting,  into  Lengths,  136 

, Margins  of,  134 

- — ,  Damp-proof,  140 

,  Fancy,  140 

,  Hanging,  138,  139 

,  Sanitary,  134 

,  Size  of,  135 

,  Varnishing,  140 

Walls  and  Ceilings,  Embellishment 
of,  144-156 

,  Dusting  124' 

■ -,  Glass-papering,  124 

,  Painting,  122,  125,  126,  130 


Walls,  Papering,  133-143 

,  Preparing  for.  Papering,  133, 134 

,  Sizing,  134 

,  Washing,  134 

Washing  Flatted  Wood-work  and 
WaUs,  127 

White,  EfEect  of  Mixing,  with 
Colours,  13 

Lead,  39-42,  46,  75,  93 

,  Adulterants  of,  46 

,  Antidotes  for,  40 

,  Efeect  of,  on  Colour,  40 

,  Manufacture  of,  41 

,  Substitutes  for,  42 

,  Testing,  46 

Whiting,  39,  93,  94 

Whitewash,  Preparing,  97, 106 

Whitewashing,  97,  103-108 

,  Causes  of  Unsuccessful,  108 

Wine  Colour,  89 

Woodwork,  Old,  Painting  and  Dis- 
tempering, 120 

,  Painting,  125,  126,  129,  131 


Yellow  Bronze,  90 

Lake,  90 

Pigments,  32-34 

not  a  Primary  Colont,  13 


Zinc  White  43,  44,  75 


FriQted  ] 


Cassell  &  Co^rAKT,  LiuxTBO,  La  Belle  Sauvage,  LondoD,  2.C. 

30.01^ 


HANDICRAFT  SJ^RIMS  {continued). 

Electro-  Plating.     With  Numerous  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Lo7itents. — introduction.  Tanks,  Vats,  and  other  Apparatus.  Batteries, 
Dynamos,  and  Electrical  Accessories.  Appliances  for  Preparing  and  t  inishmg 
Work.  Silver-Plating,  Copper-Platmg.  Gold-Plating.  Nickel-Plating  and 
Cycle- Plating,  finishing  Electro-Plated  Goods.  Electro-Plating  with  Various 
Metals  and  Alloys.     Index. 

Clay  Modelling  and  Plaster  Casting.    With  153  Engravings  and 

Diagrams. 

Violins  and  Other  Stringed  Instruments,    with  about  180 

Illustrations. 
G?«^^«/j.— Materials  and  Tools  for  Violin  Making.    Violin  Moulds.     Violin 
Making.     Varnishing  and  Finishing  Violins,     Double  Bass  and  a  Violoncello. 
Japanese   One-string  Violin.      Mandolin   Making.      Guitar   Making.      Banjo 
Making.     Zither  Making      Dulcimer  Making.     Index. 

Glass  Writing,  Embossing,  and  Fascia  Work,    (including 

the  Making  and  t  ixing  of  Wood  Letters  and  Illuminated  Signs.)     With 

129  Illustrations. 
Contents. — Plain  Lettering  and  Simple  Tablets.  Gold  Lettering.  Blocked 
Letters.  Stencil  Cutting.  Gold  Etching.  Embossing.  French  or  Treble 
Embossing.  Incised  Fascias,  Stall-plates,  and  Grained  Background.  Letters 
in  Perspective;  Spacing  Letters.  Arrangement  of  Wording  and  Colors.  Wood 
Letters  Illuminated  Signs.  Temporary  Signs  for  Windows.  Imitation 
Inlaid  Signs.     Imitation  Mosaic  Signs.     Specimen  Alphabets.     Index. 

Photographic  Chemistry.     With  31  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Photographic  Studios  and  Dark   Rooms.     With  180  Illus- 
trations. 

Contents. — Planning  Studios.  Building  Studios.  Portable  and  Temporary 
Studios.  Studios  Improvised  from  Greenhouses,  Dwelling  Rooms,  etc. 
Lighting  of  Studios.  Backgrounds.  Scenic  Accessories.  Dark-Rooms.  Portable 
Dark-Rooms.     Dark-Room  Fittings.     Portable  Dark  Tent.     Index. 

Motor   Bicycle    Building.     With  137  Illustrations  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Frame  for  Motor  Bicycle.  Patterns  for  Frame  Castings.  Build- 
ing Frame  from  Castings.  Making  32  H.  P.  Petrol  Motor.  Spray  Carburettor 
for  3|-  H.  P.  Motor.  Ignition  Coils  for  Motor  Cycles.  Light-weight  Petrol 
Motor  for  Attachment  to  Roadster  Bicycle.  Spray  Carburettor  for  Light- 
weight Motor.     Index. 

Rustic  Carpentry.     With  172  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Light  Rustic  Work,  Flower  Stands,  \'ases,  etc.  Tables,  Chairs 
and  Seats.  Gates  and  Fences.  Rosery  Work,  Porch,  Swing  Canopy  Aviary, 
Footbridges  Verandahs.  Tool  Houses,  Garden  Shelters,  etc.  Summer  Houses, 
Dovecot.     Index. 

Pumps  and    Rams!    Their  Action   and   Construction. 

With  171  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Suction  Pumps  and  Lift  Pumps.  Making  Simple  Suction  Pumps, 
Pump  Cup  Leathers,  Pump  Valves,  Ram  or  Plunger  Pumps.  Making  Bucket 
and  Plunger  Pump.  Construction  of  Plumbers'  Force  Pump,  Wooden  Pumps, 
Small  Pumps  for  Special  Purposes,  Centrifugal  Pumps,  Air  Lift,  Mammoth, 
and  Pulsometer  Pumps,  Hydraulic  Rams.  Index. 
Domestic  Jobbing.     With  107  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Cutlery  Grinding,  Sharpening  and  Repairing.     Simple  Soldering 
and  Brazing.     China  Riveting  and  Repairing.     Chair  Caning,  Furniture  Re- 
pairing, Glazing  Windows,  Umbrella  Alaking  and  Repairing.     Index. 
Tinplate  Work.     With  280  Illustrations  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Tinmen's  Tools,  Appliances  and  Materials.  Elementary  Ex- 
amples in  Tinplate.  Hollowing  Tinplate.  Simple  Roimd  Articles  in  Tinplate. 
Saucepan  Making.  Square  and  Oval  Kettle  Making.  Oil  Cooking  Stove. 
Set  of  Workshop  Oil  Cans.  Fancy  Paste  Cutters.  Lamps  and  Lanterns. 
Index. 

Other  Volumes  in  Preparation. 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  604-608  South  V/ashington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


Wheel    Pattern.     Lathe    Bed    Patterns. 
Slide-rest  Patterns.     Valve  Patterns  and 


Co. 
Finish 
in  Cas 

Patterns  ana  «^ore  lioxes.  Worm 
Head  Stock  and  Poppet  Patterns. 
Core  Boxes,      Index. 

Practical  Handraiiing.    With  144  illustrations. 

Contents. — ir'nnciple;.  ot  liandraiiing.  Definition  of  Terms.  Geometrical 
Drawing,  simple  Handrails.  Wreathed  Handrails  on  the  Cylindrical  System. 
The  Uses  of  Models  Obtaining  Tangents  and  Bevels.  Face  Moulds:  their 
Construction  and  Use.  Twistmg  the  Wreath.  Completing  the  Handrail. 
Orthogonal  or  Right-angle  System  of  Setting  Wreathed  Handrails.  Handrails 
for  Stone  Stairs.  Setting  out  Scrolls  lor  Handrails.  Setting  out  Moulded 
Caps.     Intersecting  Handrails  without  Basements.     Index. 


TI^CHNICAI,  INSTRUCTION  {continued). 


Practical  Brickwork. 

Contents .—  \lx\^\\%>[\  and  Fie 
Bonds  for  Square  Angles.  Exc£ 
of  Cross  Walls.  Reveals,  Pie 
Pointing.  Damp-proof  Course; 
Chimneys  and  Fireplaces.  Ga 
Oriel  Windows. 

Practica 

Contents. 
and  Applian 


3  9031   01513768  0 

With  Numerous  Illustrations. 

■    -      Pointers'  Tools 


Pamtin 
Distemperin 
and  Varnish 
Work.     Ind 


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